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Wool

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General Information

The headings are just a suggested starting point.

History

Though sheep were first domesticated 9000 to 11,000 years ago, evidence suggests they were not selectively bred to grow more wool until 6000 BCE[1]. Their wild ancestors, known as mouflon, have short, hairy coats.[2]

The first woolen garments are believed to date from 2000 to 3000 years after selective breeding began.[3]

Numbers

According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), over 1 billion sheep are farmed worldwide.[4] It is unclear how many are raised specifically for wool, particularly as many are used for both meat and wool.

China is the country with the largest number of sheep, with a flock size of over 137 million.[5] The countries most associated with wool production are Australia (94.9 million), New Zealand (37.8 million), and the United Kingdom (36.7 million).

Is Wool Vegan?

The most widely accepted definition of veganism is as follows:

"Veganism is a way of living that seeks to exclude, as far as possible and practicable, all forms of exploitation of and cruelty to animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose."[6]

With this definition in mind, wool cannot be considered vegan because it involves the exploitation of animals for clothing. There is also considerable cruelty involved in wool production, as will be explained below. Additionally, we have no need for wool as there are other fabrics available which do not involve animal exploitation.

Harms to Sheep

Selective Breeding

Wild sheep grow exactly the right amount of hair and wool to insulate them against the heat and the cold.[7] This makes shearing unnecessary. However, domesticated sheep have been selectively bred to grow much more wool than necessary.

Some types of merino sheep have been bred to have heavily wrinkled skin. This is because some believe that the increased surface area means more wool per animal.[8] Carrying this much wool can lead to overheating in hot weather, and even death from heat exhaustion.

Moisture and urine often gather in the folds of merino skin. This attracts flies, which lay their eggs in the wrinkles.[9] When the eggs hatch, the maggots begin to eat the sheep alive. This is known as “flystrike”.

Standard Practices

Shortly after birth, lambs have holes punched in their ears so tags can be inserted, and their tails are usually docked.[10] Male lambs are castrated, sometimes by having an incision made in the scrotum and the testicles pulled out. In other cases, castration is done by cutting off the blood supply with a rubber ring until the testicles drop off.[11] If this doesn't happen, farmers may cut off the testicles with clippers. These procedures are all routinely carried out without the use of anesthetic.

To prevent flystrike (described in the previous section), farmers may carry out a procedure called “mulesing”.[12] This involves cutting away large chunks of skin from the backs of lambs’ legs and the area around their tails. Again, this is often done without anesthetic. The resulting scarred skin is smooth, and so less susceptible to flystrike. However, since the process leaves bloody wounds, flies often lay eggs there before the skin has time to heal.

Abuse and Neglect

Commercial sheep farms typically have very large flocks, often consisting of thousands of sheep.[13] This makes it impossible for farmers to give the sheep individual attention, meaning injuries and diseases often go untreated.

Shearers are usually paid according to the number of sheep they shear rather than by the hour.[14] This provides an incentive to work quickly, with little regard for animal welfare. For this reason, injuries are common.[15] Skin is often cut or ripped off, as are tails, ears, and teats. When this happens, wounds are hastily sewn up with a needle and thread. The sheep are not given painkillers.

Investigations

Though some mistreatment occurs due to carelessness, undercover investigations conducted by PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) have also found that some shearers are deliberately abusive.[16] The footage, filmed across four continents and almost 100 facilities, shows shearers standing on sheep as well as punching and kicking them. Some sheep were recorded being hit in the face with electric clippers until they bled. Sheep are prey animals who find it very stressful to be pinned down by shearers;[17] several sheep died after being violently handled during shearing, likely from shock.

In Australia and the US, sheep were thrown or kicked down chutes after being sheared.[18] Cruelty was observed in 19 Australian shearing sheds and on 14 American ranches.

In the UK, shearers were filmed slamming the sheep's heads into the floor, kicking them in the stomach, and squeezing their throats.[19] The sheep were also thrown around and had their limbs and necks twisted. Sheep with mastitis and prolapsed uteruses were not given veterinary care.

In Argentina, footage shows lambs having their throats slit and then being skinned whilst still alive.[20] Slaughter was carried out in full view of the other lambs who were going to be killed. These abuses were documented on a farm certified by the Responsible Wool Standard.

On another RWS-certified farm in Utah, investigators witnessed heavily pregnant ewes being whipped and forced through a chute.[21] After being sheared, some ewes were forced out into the desert, where they faced extremely cold nighttime temperatures with almost no wool to protect them. The ewes were left to give birth in these conditions.

Live Export and Slaughter

Adult sheep who are no longer needed are sent to slaughter. Sheep from Australia, which produces around a quarter of the wool used worldwide, are typically sent to the Middle East or North Africa to be slaughtered.[22] They are transported live on crowded ships where diseases like conjunctivitis and salmonellosis are rife. Journeys often last several days, and sometimes weeks.

Urine and feces accumulate throughout the journey, and the ships are not cleaned until the end.[23] This leads to a buildup of ammonia, which is corrosive and burns the sheep's throats and eyes. Some sheep are lame and have no choice but to lie on the feces-covered floors, where they are trampled by other sheep. The food on board the ships is different to what the sheep are used to, and many become ill or die of starvation as a result.

In the summer, the ships become extremely hot, leading many of the sheep to become heat stressed. Some quickly collapse and die, whilst others die slowly over a period of a few days. 5,982 sheep died during export in 2018 alone.[24] Their bodies are often left decaying on the ships.

Though exporting pregnant sheep is illegal, investigations have found that it happens frequently. Ewes often end up giving birth on board the ships, and crew members are usually ordered to kill the lambs. They may also be trampled by adult sheep or become separated from their mothers in the crowded conditions.

Many Middle Eastern countries have very little animal welfare legislation, meaning the surviving sheep are subjected to more mistreatment when they arrive. Animals Australia investigators discovered that when the ships dock, sheep are often thrown into the backs of trucks, trussed, and dragged roughly to slaughter.[25] Some sheep are bought by untrained individuals who brutally slaughter them at home, whilst others go to unregulated slaughterhouses. All are slaughtered using Halal methods, meaning their throats are slit while they are still conscious.

Unsuitable Climate

Wild sheep generally inhabit forests, grassland, or rocky, mountainous areas.[26] However, domesticated sheep are often farmed in areas to which they are not suited. This can lead to health problems. For example, when sheep are farmed in damp lowland regions, they are prone to infections like foot rot[27] and scald, both of which can lead to lameness. In some flocks, over 9 percent of sheep have footrot and over 15 percent have scald.[28] As a result, lameness is an extremely common problem.

Wild sheep are able to roam and find shelter from the elements. However, farmed sheep rarely have shelter provided. This leaves them vulnerable to both the heat and the cold. Consequently, many lambs die of exposure.[29]

Wool as a By-Product

Wool is sometimes stripped from slaughtered sheep,[30] often from lambs killed for meat. This wool is known as "pulled wool". Sometimes, sheep or lambs are killed and skinned shortly after being shorn.[31] The hide is tanned with the wool still attached. This is known as shearling.

Consequently, purchasing wool or related products often helps to fund the meat industry.

Humane Labels and Certifications

Responsible Wool Standard

The Responsible Wool Standard, or RWS, is a voluntary standard. This means companies and farmers can choose to be certified, but it is not required.[32]

The RWS does prohibit some of the most painful and abusive standard practices, such as mulesing.[33] It also places restrictions on many others, though these restrictions are often vague. For example, the RWS guidelines state that harmful practices such as tail docking “Shall only be carried out if failure to do so would lead to welfare problems.” However, it is not specified in which situations this would apply.

Castration is permitted in males who will be kept beyond puberty. Farmers are even allowed to castrate lambs by using a rubber ring to cut off the blood supply to the testicles; this is considered to be an extremely painful method of castration. Pain relief is only mandatory when the castration is carried out surgically.

The RWS even allows the slaughter of sheep on farms, stating that "Acceptable methods of slaughter for sheep include: a) Firearm b) Penetrating and non-penetrating captive bolt guns." The slaughter of healthy animals is not prohibited.

RWS guidelines state that sheep must have adequate food and water available at all times. However, if this is not possible due to "exceptional circumstances", then “Arrangements shall be made to relocate, sell, or humanely dispose of the sheep to ensure their welfare is not adversely affected”.

Perhaps most worryingly, farmers are not required to install cameras, so there is no way of knowing whether the standards are being adhered to. Though unannounced inspections are sometimes carried out, it is unlikely that this is enough to induce workers to comply at all times. Undercover investigations carried out on RWS-certified farms support this. See the Investigations section for more information.

ZQ

ZQ is a standard created by the New Zealand Merino Company. It prohibits mulesing and live exports, and requires farmers to provide sheep with the "five freedoms."[34] These state that sheep should be free from hunger, thirst, pain, distress, injury, disease, discomfort, and inadequate shelter. They also specify that sheep should be free to "display normal patterns of behaviour."

However, farms only need to be audited once every three years to be ZQ certified. Unannounced inspections are not carried out, so there is no way of knowing whether farmers are complying with requirements the majority of the time.

ZQ certified farmers are also permitted to send healthy sheep to slaughter. The ZQ website states that once sheep reach 6 to 8 years old, they are often "sold to the meat industry to be processed for consumption." If allowed to live out their natural lifespan, sheep usually live for 10-12 years, and have been known to reach 20 years old. Many sheep are thus slaughtered just halfway through their lives on ZQ farms.

Additionally, since the company profits from the sale of merino wool, there is a potential conflict of interest, though audits are carried out by a third party. The company describes itself as "an integrated sales, marketing, and innovation company...focused on transforming New Zealand's Merino sheep industry."[35] Companies which profit from animal exploitation have a tendency to put profits before animal welfare, so this is concerning.

Certified Merino Growers

The Certified Merino Growers certification was created by NewMerino, an independent organization which does not directly sell wool.[36] The certification is weak, simply requiring farmers to register online and make a written commitment to adhere to the Five Freedoms (mentioned in the previous section).[37] An audit is also required for full certification, but this can be completed at any time during the first 24 months after registration. Once the farm has been fully certified, no further checks are carried out.

Mulesing and dehorning are forbidden under the certification,[38] but painful procedures such as tail docking, castration, and ear notching are permitted provided certain conditions are met.

A code of conduct for shearing is provided,[39] but with no unannounced inspections or requirement for cameras in shearing sheds, it is difficult to see how it can be enforced.

Sheep Sentience and Cognition

Studies have shown that sheep can recognize the faces of up to 50 other sheep, as well as human faces.[40] They can remember faces for as long as two years, using a similar neural mechanism to humans. In one study, sheep responded emotionally when shown photographs of absent individuals (both sheep and human). The researchers concluded that this suggests sheep are capable of conscious thought.

The sheep were even able to distinguish between different emotions, such as anger and happiness, on human faces. In another study, researchers said the facial recognition abilities of sheep were on par with those of humans and primates.[41]

Researchers have also discovered that when sheep are ill, they heal themselves by eating plants with medicinal effects.[42] Ewes teach their lambs which plants to eat, and the knowledge may be passed down for several generations. The study showed that sheep kept returning to plants which had helped them before.

Environmental Consequences of Wool Production

Considerable land is cleared to graze sheep for wool production. This includes forested land. Clearing of land leads to soil erosion,[43] increased soil salinity, and decreased biodiversity.[44] In Patagonia, Argentina, sheep farming in the first half of the 20th century led to soil erosion and eventually desertification.[45]

Additionally, sheep generate huge amounts of methane, a greenhouse gas which traps 72 times as much heat in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide over a 20-year period.[46] In New Zealand, where sheep farming is a major industry, livestock is responsible for more than 90% of methane emissions.[47] Worldwide, the manure produced by sheep and other farm animals is also a major contributor to the greenhouse effect.[48]

In 2017, a report entitled Pulse of the Fashion Industry was published by Global Fashion Agenda and the Boston Consulting Group.[49] It concluded that overall, wool is one of the most environmentally damaging fabrics, and that its production causes more pollution than that of artificial fibers like rayon, acrylic, and polyester. A 2010 study in the Journal of Cleaner Production found that the impact of wool production is greater than that of sheep meat or wheat production.[50] Additionally, sheep farming is a known cause of water pollution, in large part due to fecal contamination.[51]

Sheep "dip" also presents an environmental hazard. This toxic chemical is used to kill parasites on sheep. In Scotland, a study of 795 facilities concluded that 40 percent ran the risk of causing pollution.[52] Neurological problems in farmers have also been linked to exposure to the organophosphates in sheep dip.[53]

Harm to Wildlife

Animals which are considered to pose a threat to sheep are often killed by farmers. In Australia, where much of the world's wool is produced, kangaroos are considered to be pests. As a result, landowners can apply for a permit which allows them to legally kill kangaroos on their own property.[54] The government has even issued guidelines on the best way to kill a joey if his or her mother has been shot.[55] They state that the joey should be killed with a “blow sufficient to crush the skull and destroy the brain”, or stunning and decapitation.

Thousands of coyotes are also killed each year in the US for eating livestock, including sheep.[56]

See Also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Ensminger, M. Eugene, Rick Parker, M. Eugene Ensminger, and M. Eugene Ensminger. Sheep & Goat Science. 5th ed. Animal Agriculture Series. Danville, Ill: Interstate Printers & Publishers, 1986.
  2. ↑ De Marinis, Anna Maria, and Alessandro Asprea. “How Did Domestication Change the Hair Morphology in Sheep and Goats?” Human Evolution 21, no. 2 (November 2006): 139–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11598-006-9010-0.
  3. ↑ Smith, Barbara, Mark Aseltine, and Gerald Kennedy. Beginning Shepherd’s Manual. 2nd ed. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1997.
  4. ↑ “World Food and Agriculture Statistical Pocketbook 2018.” FAO, 2018. http://www.fao.org/3/ca1796en/ca1796en.pdf.
  5. ↑ “FAOSTAT.” Accessed September 17, 2019. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QA/visualize.
  6. ↑ “Definition of Veganism.” The Vegan Society. Accessed September 9th, 2019. https://www.vegansociety.com/go-vegan/definition-veganism
  7. ↑ Ryder, M.L. “THE INTERACTION BETWEEN BIOLOGICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE DURING THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT FLEECE TYPES IN SHEEP.” Anthropozoologia, no. 16 (1992): 131–40.
  8. ↑ Bosman, V. “Studies on Merino Wool Production. Plainbodied and Developed Merino Sheep. 1.-The Standard of Production of a Group of Plainbodied Stud Ewes.” Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry 17 (October 1941): 37–43.
  9. ↑ Greeff, Johan, and John Karlsson. “Merino Sheep Can Be Bred for Resistance to Breechstrike,” 2005. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.523.631&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
  10. ↑ “Best Practice Marking of Lambs.” Text. Accessed September 13, 2019. https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/management-reproduction/best-practice-marking-lambs.
  11. ↑ Melches, Susanne, Sibylle C. Mellema, Marcus G. Doherr, Beat Wechsler, and Adrian Steiner. “Castration of Lambs: A Welfare Comparison of Different Castration Techniques in Lambs over 10 Weeks of Age.” The Veterinary Journal 173, no. 3 (May 1, 2007): 554–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.01.006.
  12. ↑ “Tail Docking and Mulesing | Meat & Livestock Australia.” Accessed September 13, 2019. https://www.mla.com.au/research-and-development/animal-health-welfare-and-biosecurity/husbandry/tail-docking-and-mulesing/
  13. ↑ “The Western Australian Sheep Industry.” Government of Western Australia, 2016. https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/sites/gateway/files/WA%20Sheep%20Industry%20booklet%202017.pdf.
  14. ↑ “Rural Wage Guide 2018/2019.” NSW Farmers, 2018. http://cleaversshearing.com.au/forms/rates.pdf.
  15. ↑ “International Exposé: Sheep Killed, Punched, Stomped on, and Cut for Wool.” PETA Investigations (blog). Accessed September 16, 2019. https://investigations.peta.org/australia-us-wool/.
  16. ↑ “International Exposé: Sheep Killed, Punched, Stomped on, and Cut for Wool.” PETA Investigations (blog). Accessed September 16, 2019. https://investigations.peta.org/australia-us-wool/.
  17. ↑ Hargreaves, A.L., and G.D. Hutson. “The Stress Response in Sheep during Routine Handling Procedures.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 26, no. 1–2 (March 1990): 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(90)90089-V.
  18. ↑ “PETA’s SEVENTH Wool Exposé: Sheep Still Hit, Kicked, Cut, Thrown.” PETA Investigations (blog). Accessed September 16, 2019. https://investigations.peta.org/australian-wool-industry-cruelty/.
  19. ↑ “Sheep in the UK Beaten, Stamped on, Cut, and Killed for Wool.” PETA Australia (blog). Accessed September 16, 2019. https://www.peta.org.au/action/breaking-investigation-sheep-in-the-uk-beaten-stamped-on-cut-and-killed-for-wool/.
  20. ↑ “Patagonia’s ‘Sustainable Wool’ Supplier EXPOSED: Lambs Skinned Alive, Throats Slit, Tails Cut Off.” PETA Investigations (blog). Accessed September 16, 2019. https://investigations.peta.org/ovis-lamb-slaughter-sheep-cruelty/.
  21. ↑ https://investigations.peta.org/another-patagonia-approved-wool-producer-exposed/
  22. ↑ Foster, Susan F., and Karen L. Overall. “The Welfare of Australian Livestock Transported by Sea.” The Veterinary Journal 200, no. 2 (May 2014): 205–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.03.016.
  23. ↑ “SIGN HERE: End Sheep Ship Terror NOW.” Accessed September 16, 2019. https://secure.animalsaustralia.org/take_action/live-export-shipboard-cruelty/.
  24. ↑ “Department of Agriculture Reports to Parliament.” Accessed September 13, 2019. http://www.agriculture.gov.au:80/export/controlled-goods/live-animals/live-animal-export-statistics/reports-to-parliament.
  25. ↑ https://www.animalsaustralia.org/features/festival-of-sacrifice-eid-al-adha-live-export-investigation-report-2017.php
  26. ↑ “The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed September 13, 2019. https://www.iucnredlist.org/en.
  27. ↑ Smith, Edward M., Olivia D. J. Green, Leonides A. Calvo-Bado, Luci A. Witcomb, Rosemary Grogono-Thomas, Claire L. Russell, Judith C. Brown, et al. “Dynamics and Impact of Footrot and Climate on Hoof Horn Length in 50 Ewes from One Farm over a Period of 10 Months.” The Veterinary Journal 201, no. 3 (September 1, 2014): 295–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.05.021.
  28. ↑ Winter, Agnes. “Lameness in Sheep 1. Diagnosis.” In Practice 26, no. 2 (February 1, 2004): 58–63. https://doi.org/10.1136/inpract.26.2.58.
  29. ↑ Pollard, J. C. “Shelter for Lambing Sheep in New Zealand: A Review.” New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 49, no. 4 (October 2006): 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2006.9513730.
  30. ↑ “Wool | Animal Fibre.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed September 13, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/wool.
  31. ↑ “Definition of SHEARLING.” Accessed September 16, 2019. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/shearling.
  32. ↑ “About RWS.” Responsible Wool Standard. Accessed September 13, 2019. https://responsiblewool.org/about-rws/.
  33. ↑ “Responsible Wool Standard.” 2016. Responsible Wool Standard. Textile Exchange. Accessed 13 Sept. 2019. https://responsiblewool.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/RWS-standard.pdf.
  34. ↑ “ZQ Natural Fibre | FAQs.” Discover ZQ. Accessed September 16, 2019. https://www.discoverzq.com/faqs.
  35. ↑ “The New Zealand Merino Company | Investor Gateway” New Zealand Merino. Accessed September 16, 2019. https://www.nzmerino.co.nz/investor-gateway.
  36. ↑ “About NewMerino.” Newmerino.Com.Au (blog). Accessed September 16, 2019. https://newmerino.com.au/about-newmerino/.
  37. ↑ “Certified Merino Growers.” Newmerino.Com.Au (blog). Accessed September 16, 2019. https://newmerino.com.au/certified-growers/.
  38. ↑ “Animal Welfare - Guidelines.” NewMerino. Accessed September 17, 2019. https://newmerino.com.au/wp2/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Guidelines_Animal-Welfare-18.5.pdf.
  39. ↑ “Shearing Contractors Code of Conduct.” NewMerino, 2017. https://newmerino.com.au/wp2/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Shearing-Code-of-Conduct-ver-18.5.pdf.
  40. ↑ Kendrick, Keith M., Ana P. da Costa, Andrea E. Leigh, Michael R. Hinton, and Jon W. Peirce. “Sheep Don’t Forget a Face.” Nature 414, no. 6860 (November 2001): 165–66. https://doi.org/10.1038/35102669.
  41. ↑ Knolle, Franziska, Rita P. Goncalves, and A. Jennifer Morton. “Sheep Recognize Familiar and Unfamiliar Human Faces from Two-Dimensional Images.” Royal Society Open Science 4, no. 11 (n.d.): 171228. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.171228.
  42. ↑ Villalba, J. J., and F. D. Provenza. “Self-Medication and Homeostatic Behaviour in Herbivores: Learning about the Benefits of Nature’s Pharmacy.” Animal 1, no. 9 (October 2007): 1360–70. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731107000134.
  43. ↑ Pimentel, D., J. Allen, A. Beers, L. Guinand, R. Linder, P. McLaughlin, B. Meer, et al. “World Agriculture and Soil Erosion.” BioScience 37, no. 4 (April 1987): 277–83. https://doi.org/10.2307/1310591.
  44. ↑ Gitay, Habiba, and Robert T. Watson. “Climate Change and Biodiversity.” Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, April 2002. https://www.tnrf.org/files/E-INFO_IPCC_2002_Climate_Change_and_Biodiversity_0.pdf.
  45. ↑ Mazzonia, Elizabeth, and Mirian Vazquez. “Desertification in Patagonia.” In Developments in Earth Surface Processes, edited by Edgardo M. Latrubesse, 13:351–77. Natural Hazards and Human-Exacerbated Disasters in Latin America. Elsevier, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0928-2025(08)10017-7.
  46. ↑ Goodland, Robert, and Jeff Anhang. “Livestock and Climate Change.” World Watch, December 2019. http://www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/Livestock%20and%20Climate%20Change.pdf.
  47. ↑ “NIWA Says Greenhouse Gas Methane Is on the Rise Again.” NIWA, December 22, 2009. https://www.niwa.co.nz/news/niwa-says-greenhouse-gas-methane-rise-again.
  48. ↑ Chadwick, Dave, Sven Sommer, Rachel Thorman, David Fangueiro, Laura Cardenas, Barbara Amon, and Tom Misselbrook. “Manure Management: Implications for Greenhouse Gas Emissions.” Animal Feed Science and Technology 166–167 (June 2011): 514–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.04.036.
  49. ↑ Kerr, John, and John Landry. “PULSE OF THE FASHION INDUSTRY.” Global Fashion Agenda, 2017. https://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf.
  50. ↑ Biswas, Wahidul K., John Graham, Kevin Kelly, and Michele B. John. “Global Warming Contributions from Wheat, Sheep Meat and Wool Production in Victoria, Australia – a Life Cycle Assessment.” Journal of Cleaner Production 18, no. 14 (September 2010): 1386–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.05.003.
  51. ↑ Ufnar, J. A., S. Y. Wang, D. F. Ufnar, and R. D. Ellender. “Methanobrevibacter Ruminantium as an Indicator of Domesticated-Ruminant Fecal Pollution in Surface Waters.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73, no. 21 (November 1, 2007): 7118–21. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00911-07.
  52. ↑ Virtue, W.A., and J.W. Clayton. “Sheep Dip Chemicals and Water Pollution.” Science of The Total Environment 194–195 (February 1997): 207–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(96)05365-X.
  53. ↑ Mackenzie Ross, Sarah Jane, Chris Ray Brewin, Helen Valerie Curran, Clement Eugene Furlong, Kelly Michelle Abraham-Smith, and Virginia Harrison. “Neuropsychological and Psychiatric Functioning in Sheep Farmers Exposed to Low Levels of Organophosphate Pesticides.” Neurotoxicology and Teratology 32, no. 4 (July 2010): 452–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2010.03.004.
  54. ↑ “Overview of Laws Governing Kangaroo Culling in Australia | Animal Legal & Historical Center.” Accessed September 15, 2019. https://www.animallaw.info/article/overview-laws-governing-kangaroo-culling-australia.
  55. ↑ “National Code of Practice for the Humane Shooting of Kangaroos and Wallabies for Commercial Purposes.” Australian Government, November 7, 2008. https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/8ae26c87-fb7c-4ddc-b5df-02039cf1483e/files/code-conduct-commercial.pdf.
  56. ↑ “Agriculture Department Killed 1.3 Million Native Animals in 2017.” Accessed September 13, 2019. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2018/wildlife-services-04-23-2018.php.

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