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This article provides summarized information about farmed pigs in the context of animal rights, including injustices and suffering, humane labels and certifications, pig sentience and cognition, the environmental consequences of farming pigs, the health risks of pig meat, and impacts to communities and workers.
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This assignment is a work in process and not ready to be assigned. Assignments are moved to the draft namespace after an author has accepted the assignment.
 
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<-- Visible editorial notes appear between <-- and --> tags. You can delete them after you start on a section or you can hide them by using the standard notation for comments, adding an exclamation mark: "<!-- note goes here -->." They should be deleted, hidden or not, before the pre-publication review. The author should delete this particular one after reading it. -->
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== General Information  ==
  
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This article provides information about pigs that should prove useful to those advocating for animal rights, as well as to those exploring the rationale for [[veganism]].  
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=== Lineage ===
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Pigs were domesticated approximately 9000 years ago from various subspecies of the Eurasian wild boar.<ref>Giuffra, E., J. M. Kijas, V. Amarger, O. Carlborg, J. T. Jeon, and L. Andersson. “The Origin of the Domestic Pig: Independent Domestication and Subsequent Introgression.” Genetics 154, no. 4 (April 2000): 1785–91.</ref> Domestication occurred separately in Europe and Asia, though there is evidence that interbreeding later took place.<ref>Larson, G. “Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication.” Science 307, no. 5715 (March 11, 2005): 1618–21. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1106927.</ref> Pigs were brought to North America by Spanish explorers in the 16th century.<ref>Singer, Francis J. “Wild Pig Populations in the National Parks.” Environmental Management 5, no. 3 (May 1981): 263–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01873285.</ref>
  
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It covers various aspects of farmed pigs in the context of animal rights, including injustices and suffering, humane labels and certifications, pig sentience and cognition, the environmental consequences of farming pigs, the health risks of pork, and impacts to communities and workers
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=== Numbers ===
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Worldwide, over[[Table: Annual Slaughter Counts of Land Animals by Country, Animal, and Usage | two billion]] pigs are slaughtered for meat each year. In the United States alone, over 121 million are killed annually.
  
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Read it through or use the table of contents to go directly to your section of interest.
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Using data from the USDA Census of Agriculture and the EPA's definitions of Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations, the Sentience Institute estimates that 98.3 percent of pigs in the USA are factory-farmed.<ref>“US Factory Farming Estimates.” Sentience Institute. Accessed October 22, 2019. http://www.sentienceinstitute.org/us-factory-farming-estimates.</ref> The figures for other industrialized nations are likely to be similar.
  
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<-- Generally, use [[Chickens]] as a model for this article. Deviations are allowed. The books ''Slaughterhouse,'' and ''Eating Animals'' can help in running down primary sources, if you have them or can get them. -->
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== Injustices and Suffering ==
  
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== General Information  ==
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{{Embed:Injustices because commodities | pigs}}
  
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=== Heritage ===
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=== Loss of Life ===
  
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=== Numbers ===
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We have [[In reply to: We need animal products to be healthy | no nutritional need]] for pork, so denying pigs their lives is unnecessary, as are the other forms of suffering enumerated here. Not only are we taking their lives—we are doing so after allowing them to live only [[Table: Age of Animals Slaughtered vs. Natural Life Span | about three percent of their natural life spans]]. Pigs are slaughtered after living only [[Table: Age of Animals Slaughtered vs. Natural Life Span | 5 to 6 weeks of a 10 to 12-year natural lifespan]].
  
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<-- when referring to numbers slaughtered, link to [[Table: Annual Slaughter Counts of Land Animals by Country, Animal, and Usage | this table]] instead of using a footnote. -->
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To take the life of any sentient being is to harm that being by depriving them of opportunities for fulfillment, even if it is done suddenly and painlessly (which it is not, as explained below).
  
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== Injustices and Suffering ==
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=== Slaughter ===
  
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The injustices inherent in exploiting pigs and other non-human animals stem from seeing them as having only instrumental value, lacking any inherent worth apart from their usefulness to humans.
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==== Boiling Alive ====
  
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As Tom Regan put it, the animals we use "have a life of their own that is of importance to them, apart from their utility to us. They are not only in the world, they are aware of it and also of what happens to them. And what happens to them matters to them. Each has a life that fares experientially better or worse for the one whose life it is."<ref>[[Archive:Tom Regan Speech at the Royal Institute of Great Britain in 1989]]</ref>
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Many slaughterhouses kill 1000 pigs or more per hour, and the USDA is attempting to remove limits on slaughter line speeds.<ref>Animal Legal Defense Fund. “Stopping Cruel High-Speed Pig Slaughter.” Accessed November 2, 2019. <nowiki>https://aldf.org/article/stopping-cruel-high-speed-pig-slaughter/</nowiki>.</ref> Legally, pigs are required to be rendered unconscious by stunning before slaughter. However, lines run so quickly that mistakes are inevitable. Many pigs are not properly stunned, and investigations show that as a consequence they are still conscious when they reach the scalding tanks which remove their hair.<ref name="hormel" /> This means they are effectively boiled alive.
  
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As shown in the section on sentience and cognition, pigs not only have a will to live and value their lives, just as humans do, but also have desires, preferences, emotions, families, social communities, natural behaviors, a sense of themselves, and a sense of the future.
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==== Gas Chambers ====
  
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The injustices discussed below—all arising from a failure to recognize the inherent worth of other sentient beings—are either standard practice or not unusual. And, as shown in the section below on humane labels and certifications, this is true even for those chicken products with a humane label or certification. To omit a significant number of these injustices would likely increase costs to the point of rendering chicken meat and eggs unaffordable by all but the most affluent.
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Increasingly, pigs are slaughtered in carbon dioxide gas chambers rather than conventional slaughterhouses.<ref>“Carbon Dioxide Stunning and Killing of Pigs .” Humane Slaughter Association, May 2007. https://www.hsa.org.uk/downloads/technical-notes/TN19-carbon-dioxide-pigs-HSA.pdf.</ref> This is considered the most humane method of slaughter, but undercover footage shows pigs panicking, gasping for air, and trying to escape.<ref>“WORLD FIRST: So-Called ‘humane’ Pig Slaughter Filmed. If This Is the ‘Best’ – What Is the Worst?” Accessed November 2, 2019. http://www.animalsaustralia.org/features/not-so-humane-slaughter/.</ref> Studies show that this form of slaughter causes both anxiety and pain in pigs.<ref>Llonch, P, A Dalmau, P Rodríguez, X Manteca, and A Velarde. “Aversion to Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide Mixtures for Stunning Pigs.” Animal Welfare 21, no. 1 (February 1, 2012): 33–39. https://doi.org/10.7120/096272812799129475.</ref>
  
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=== Loss of Life ===
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=== Mutilations ===
  
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We have no nutritional need for pork, so denying pigs their lives is unnecessary, as are the other forms of suffering enumerated here.<ref>[[In reply to: We need animal products to be healthy]]</ref>
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==== Teeth Clipping ====
  
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Not only are we taking their lives—we are doing so after allowing them to live only about three percent of their natural life spans. Pigs are slaughtered after living only 5 to 6 weeks of a 10 to 12-year natural lifespan. [[Table: Age of Animals Slaughtered vs. Natural Life Span]]
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Piglets may also have their sharp “needle teeth” clipped to prevent them from injuring each other when fighting over teats, inducing severe pain in pigs as it would in humans.<ref>Hay, M. “Long-Term Detrimental Effects of Tooth Clipping or Grinding in Piglets: A Histological Approach.” Animal Welfare 13 (2004). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Armelle_Prunier/publication/233501058_Long-term_detrimental_effects_of_tooth_clipping_or_grinding_in_piglets_A_histological_approach/links/5576797f08ae75363751ad32/Long-term-detrimental-effects-of-tooth-clipping-or-grinding-in-piglets-A-histological-approach.pdf.</ref> Teeth clipping can also result in lasting damage. According to the American Veterinary Medical Association, "clipping has been shown to increase longer-term behaviors suggestive of discomfort such as chomping. Piglets whose teeth have been clipped may experience more gum and tongue injuries, and potentially painful inflammation or abscesses of the teeth."<ref>"Welfare Implications of Teeth Clipping, Tail Docking and Permanent Identification of Piglets." Accessed November 6, 2019. https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/LiteratureReviews/Pages/Welfare-implications-of-practices-performed-on-piglets.aspx.</ref>
  
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To take the life of any sentient being is to harm that being by depriving them of opportunities for fulfillment, even if it is done suddenly and painlessly (which it is not, as explained below).
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==== Castration ====
  
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=== Slaughter ===
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Male piglets are castrated, primarily because their flesh can otherwise develop an unpleasant taste and smell. This is generally done by making an incision in the scrotum and pulling out the testes, before cutting the spermatic cord. In most countries, it is legal to carry out this procedure without anesthetic in the piglet's first week of life, despite the fact that this is known to be painful. Carrying out castration at this age is also risky as the testes are very small, which can lead to incomplete castration and increase the risk of prolapse of the intestine.<ref>Prunier, A. “A Review of the Welfare Consequences of Surgical Castration in Piglets and the Evaluation of Non-Surgical Methods.” Animal Welfare, no. 15 (2006): 277–89.</ref>
  
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<-- discuss methods of slaughter, USDA inspecter testimonials, slaughter speed lines, and the cruelty involved. The book ''Slaughterhouse" and 
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==== Tail Docking ====
  
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=== Another Injustice / Abuse ===
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Pigs sometimes bite each other's tails when stressed, so some farmers cut off pigs' tails to prevent this. However, studies suggest that this can cause acute and possibly chronic pain.<ref>Herskin, M. S., K. Thodberg, and H. E. Jensen. “Effects of Tail Docking and Docking Length on Neuroanatomical Changes in Healed Tail Tips of Pigs.” Animal 9, no. 4 (April 2015): 677–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731114002857.</ref> Though tail docking is thought to reduce the incidence of serious injuries, it does not eliminate them. In Ireland, where 99 percent of pigs have docked tails, 72.5 percent were still found to have tail lesions at slaughter.<ref>Harley, S, La Boyle, Ne O’Connell, Sj More, Dl Teixeira, and A Hanlon. “Docking the Value of Pigmeat? Prevalence and Financial Implications of Welfare Lesions in Irish Slaughter Pigs.” Animal Welfare 23, no. 3 (August 1, 2014): 275–85. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.23.3.275.
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</ref>
  
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=== Another Injustice / Abuse, etc ===
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==== Ear Notching and Tattooing ====
  
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== Humane Labels and Certifications ==
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Most piglets undergo painful routine procedures when they are less than a week old so they can be identified.
  
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Investigations by Consumer Reports and the Open Philanthropy Project reveal that these certifications and labels are largely meaningless, as shown below. These investigations show that the standards are weak and unenforced, audits and inspections are rarely done, and if they are done and violations are found, which is infrequent, no one gets fined.<ref>Consumer Reports  “Labels.” Greener Choices (blog). Accessed July 6, 2019. http://greenerchoices.org/labels/</ref><ref>Global Animal Partnership.” Open Philanthropy Project, March 26, 2016. https://www.openphilanthropy.org/focus/us-policy/farm-animal-welfare/global-animal-partnership-general-support</ref>
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Ear notching is painful.<ref>Torrey, S., N. Devillers, M. Lessard, C. Farmer, and T. Widowski. “Effect of Age on the Behavioral and Physiological Responses of Piglets to Tail Docking and Ear Notching1.” Journal of Animal Science 87, no. 5 (May 1, 2009): 1778–86. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2008-1354.</ref> Tattooing involves some degree of pain, but perhaps, more importantly, it is stressful.<ref>Brach, E.J., B.S. Scobie, and D.P. Raymond. “Hog Tattooing Techniques.” Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 41, no. 4 (December 1988): 339–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-8634(88)90218-1.</ref> Unlike humans, when pigs are tattooed they are not consenting and don't understand what's happening to them.
  
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{{jfa-expand | Extra: Suggested script for discussing humane labels and certifications}}
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=== Living Conditions ===
  
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When discussing humane labels and certifications, in addition to providing some of the details presented in this section, conveying the ideas presented in the following script might be useful:
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==== Gestation Crates ====
  
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Many believe that we are not harming animals when we use them for food as long as we treat them well while they are living. The justification given for this view is that animals don't have a sense of the future, and thus don’t have an interest in continuing to live. However, current research in cognitive ethology and neurobiology [as shown below], says otherwise.
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Pregnant sows are often kept in metal stalls called gestation crates. The crates typically measure just 6.5 ft x 2.0 ft, meaning sows are not able to turn around.<ref>“Welfare Implications of Gestation Sow Housing.” Accessed November 1, 2019. https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/LiteratureReviews/Pages/Welfare-Implications-of-Gestation-Sow-Housing.aspx.
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</ref> Some larger sows are not even able to lie on their sides (the way pigs normally sleep) in the crates. The stalls typically do not contain bedding material, instead having metal, plastic, or concrete floors. Sows often chew on the bars, a sign of boredom and frustration.<ref>Cronin, G. M., P. R. Wiepkema, and J. M. van Ree. “Andorphins Implicated in Stereotypies of Tethred Sows.” Experientia 42, no. 2 (February 1986): 198–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01952467.</ref> Pigs prefer to relieve themselves a long way from where they eat and sleep, which is impossible when they are confined to crates.<ref>“Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) on a Request from the Commission Related to Welfare of Weaners and Rearing Pigs: Effects of Different Space Allowances and Floor.” The EFSA Journal 268 (October 28, 2005): 1–19.</ref>
  
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But if one holds this belief in spite of the science, and wants to live by their own values, they might, with good intentions, decide to buy only animal products that have some sort of humane label or certification. However, investigations by Consumer Research, The Open Philanthropy Project, and numerous others reveal that these certifications and labels are largely meaningless.
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==== Farrowing Crates ====
  
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These investigations show that the standards are weak and unenforced, audits and inspections are rarely done, and if they are done and violations are found, which is infrequent, no one gets fined.
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A few days before they are due to give birth, sows are moved to farrowing crates. These are slightly larger to allow the sow to lie on her side and nurse her piglets. They also have an additional enclosure attached to prevent piglets from being accidentally crushed by the sow. The crates are said to reduce piglet mortality compared to keeping sows loose, but there is no convincing evidence that this is the case.<ref>Aland, Andres, and Thomas Banhazi, eds. Livestock Housing: Modern Management to Ensure Optimal Health and Welfare of Farm Animals. The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2013. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-771-4.</ref> Sows remain in farrowing crates for about a month, before being impregnated again and returned to the gestation crates. Gestation crates have been banned in nine US states, but farrowing crates remain legal across the country. Use of the crates has also been banned or restricted in many other regions, such as the EU and Canada.<ref>Humane Society International. “Canada Bans Lifelong Confinement for Pigs in Controversial Gestation Crates,” March 6, 2014. https://www.hsi.org/news-media/canada-gestation-crates-ban-30614/.</ref>
  
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So even if you buy into the idea that it’s OK to eat animal products as long as the animals are treated well, there is virtually no chance that the animals have, in fact, been treated well, regardless of what label is on the package. While certain labels may represent less suffering for some of the abuses, other abuses remain. The mitigation of some of the cruelties does not justify the remaining ones.
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==== Crowded Pens ====
  
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Humane labels and certifications are, for the most part, marketing ploys. They are designed to assuage our guilt, and they can engender higher profits because the industry knows that concerned, kindhearted consumers are willing to pay more for products they perceive to be humanely produced.
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After being removed from their mothers, piglets are crowded into pens where they barely have room to move until they reach slaughter weight. Pigs may also develop arthritis from lack of exercise and be injured when their feet are caught in the floor slats. The stress of confinement can lead pigs to exhibit unnatural cannibalistic behavior.<ref>Fox, Michael. “Factory Farming.” The Humane Society Institute for Science and Policy, 1980. https://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=sturep.</ref>
  
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The life of any farmed animal can only be described as one of commodified, abusive servitude ending in brutal slaughter. When viewed objectively, free from the fog of our cultural norms, their treatment and slaughter, by any standard of fairness and justice—cannot be considered humane.
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=== Disease and High Mortality ===
  
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{{jfa-expand-end}}
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==== African Swine Fever ====
  
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=== Cage-Free ===
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African swine fever is one example of pigs' susceptibility to disease because of crowded filthy conditions. It has an extremely high mortality rate of 95-100 percent in pigs. There is no known treatment for the disease.<ref>Štukelj, Marina, and Jan Plut. “A Review of African Swine Fever – Disease That Is Now a Big Concern in Europe.” Contemporary Agriculture 67, no. 2 (July 1, 2018): 110–18. https://doi.org/10.2478/contagri-2018-0016.</ref> An outbreak in China in mid-2019 resulted in the deaths of millions of pigs.<ref>Gale, Jason, Hannah Dormido, and Adrian Leung. “Why Eliminating African Swine Fever Could Take Decades.” Bloomberg.Com. Accessed November 2, 2019. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2019-eliminating-african-swine-fever/.</ref>
  
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Consumer Reports advises you to “ignore cage-free claims” for chickens.<ref>“A ‘Cage-Free’ Claim: Does It Add Value?” Greener Choices |Consumer Reports, March 5, 2018 http://greenerchoices.org/2018/03/05/cage-free-add-value/ </ref> ''Cage-free'' does not mean the chickens had access to the outdoors. It only means the chickens were not confined to a cage.<ref name="cage-free">What Does ‘Cage Free’ Mean?” Greener Choices | Consumer Reports, February 6, 2017. http://greenerchoices.org/2017/02/06/cage-free-mean/ </ref>
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==== Pneumonia and Mange ====
  
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Cage-free chickens, like free-range chickens, may be confined not by a cage but by crowding so extreme that turning around and engaging in the natural behaviors of preening, nesting, foraging, dust bathing, and perching is difficult or impossible. Such extreme crowding in large metal warehouses is the norm.<ref>Ibid.</ref><ref>Dan Flynn, “Cage-Free Hens Don’t Improve Egg Food Safety, Nutrition Levels,” Food Safety News, March 1, 2017, http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2017/03/cage-free-hens-dont-improve-egg-food-safety-nutrition-levels/ </ref>
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Pneumonia and mange  are other examples.<ref>Mercy, Ashley. “The Western Australian Pig Health Monitoring Scheme.” Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia 31, no. 3 (January 1, 1990). https://researchlibrary.agric.wa.gov.au/journal_agriculture4/vol31/iss3/7</ref> Mortality rates are high, and investigations have found that their bodies are sometimes left in the pens for extended periods.<ref>“Viva! Campaigns’ 2019 Investigation into Hogwood Pig Farm.” Text. Viva!, August 14, 2019. https://www.viva.org.uk/hogwood/2019.</ref>
  
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=== Free Range ===
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=== Reproduction and Selective Breeding ===
  
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The USDA standard for ''free-range'' requires only that chickens are given some access to the outdoors. There are no stipulations for the size or quality of the outdoor space, and there is no requirement that the chickens actually spend time outdoors.<ref>“FSIS.” Food Safety Inspection Service, USDA, http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/food-labeling/meat-and-poultry-labeling-terms</ref> Also, the claim does not have to be verified through inspections.<ref name="free-range">“What Does ‘Free Range’ Mean?” Greener Choices | Consumer Reports, April 25, 2017. http://greenerchoices.org/2017/04/25/free-range/ </ref>
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==== Large Litters ====
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Modern sows have been bred to produce significantly larger litters than their wild counterparts. A study done on wild boars in Portugal found that litter sizes ranged from 2 to 8 piglets.<ref>Fonseca, Carlos, António Alves da Silva, Joana Alves, José Vingada, and Amadeu M. V. M. Soares. “Reproductive Performance of Wild Boar Females in Portugal.” ''European Journal of Wildlife Research'' 57, no. 2 (April 2011): 363–71. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-010-0441-6</nowiki>.</ref> Farmed sows produce far larger litters. Between 1986 and 2006, the average number of live piglets per litter increased from 10.5 to 12.7. The time between litters also decreased from 155.8 days to 148.7 days. Suckling so many piglets can put immense strain on the sow and cause her to lose body weight.<ref name="prunier">Prunier, A., M. Heinonen, and H. Quesnel. “High Physiological Demands in Intensively Raised Pigs: Impact on Health and Welfare.” Animal 4, no. 6 (June 2010): 886–98. https://doi.org/10.1017/S175173111000008X.</ref>  
  
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So it's not surprising that investigations by Consumer Reports (and others) reveal that most chickens labeled ''free-range'' spend their lives confined inside a crowded chicken house. The free-range space itself may be nothing more than an enclosed concrete slab that the chickens never use. These individuals lack the room even to turn around, much less engage in their natural behaviors of preening, nesting, foraging, dust bathing, and perching.<ref name="free-range" /> This has led Consumer Reports to say that ''free-range'' is one of the most potentially misleading labels because of the discrepancy between what it implies and what is required to make the claim."<ref name="free-range" />
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==== Weight Gain ====
  
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Only one percent of eggs are from free-range hens that have the option to go outdoors, but like the other 99 percent, even those hens have likely never actually been outdoors.<ref>“A Hen’s Space to Roost.” New York Times, August 15, 2010. http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/weekinreview/20100815-chicken-cages.pdf</ref>
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Like factory-farmed chickens, pigs have been bred to gain weight so rapidly that they sometimes struggle to support their own body weight. On average, pigs who are being fattened now gain 770g a day, compared to 670g two decades ago. This rapid weight gain can lead to joint and leg problems.<ref name="prunier" /> In 1997, a study showed that pigs more closely related to wild boar gained 47g less per day.<ref>Casas-Carrillo, E, A Prill-Adams, S G Price, A C Clutter, and B W Kirkpatrick. “Mapping Genomic Regions Associated with Growth Rate in Pigs.” ''Journal of Animal Science'' 75, no. 8 (1997): 2047. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2527/1997.7582047x</nowiki>.</ref>
  
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Jonathan Foer, in his well-researched and fact-checked book<ref>Yonan, Joe. “Book Review: Eating Animals by Jonathan Safran Foer,” November 22, 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/20/AR2009112001684.html</ref> ''Eating Animals,'' sums it up well in saying that "the free-range label is bullshit" and "should provide no more peace of mind than 'all-natural,' 'fresh,' or 'magical.'"<ref>Foer, Jonathan Safran. Eating Animals. Little, Brown, 2009, 102 “A ‘Cage-Free’ Claim: Does It Add Value?” Greener Choices |Consumer Reports, March 5, 2018</ref>
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Pigs' increased muscle mass means their hearts and lungs are proportionally smaller than those of their ancestors, which can cause strain. As a result, even young pigs sometimes die from heart attacks.<ref>Broom, Donald. “THE ROLES OF INDUSTRY AND SCIENCE, INCLUDING GENETIC SELECTION, IN IMPROVING ANIMAL WELFARE.” Animal Science and Biotechnologies 42, no. 2 (2009): 532–46.</ref> Selective breeding for lean muscle has led to the prevalence of a gene which makes pigs very sensitive to stress.<ref name="prunier" />
  
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=== Whole Foods Market (GAP) ===
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==== Artificial Insemination ====
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The use of artificial insemination rather than natural breeding is common,<ref>National Hog Farmer. “Proper AI Techniques, Semen Handling,” October 15, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.nationalhogfarmer.com/genetics-reproduction/artificial-insemination/proper-ai-techniques</nowiki>.</ref> as it gives farmers more control over the characteristics of the piglets. Artificial insemination is a stressful procedure<ref>Grandin, Temple. “Reduce Stress of Handling to Improve Productivity of Livestock.” Veterinary Medicine, June 1984.</ref> that sows cannot consent to, making it a violation of their rights.
  
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Whole Foods Market spearheaded the development of the Global Animal Partnership (GAP) certification program and sells various products, including eggs and chicken meat, with GAP labels.
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=== Cruel Handling ===
  
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The Open Philanthropy Project criticized GAP for having weak enforcement and for providing only slight improvements over standard factory farming conditions.<ref>“Global Animal Partnership.” Open Philanthropy Project, March 26, 2016.  href="https://www.openphilanthropy.org/focus/us-policy/farm-animal-welfare/global-animal-partnership-general-support">https://www.openphilanthropy.org/focus/us-policy/farm-animal-welfare/global-animal-partnership-general-support </ref> For example, according to Consumer Reports, "standards for slaughter do not exist at any level for chickens and there is no limit on their rate of growth."<ref>“Global Animal Partnership Step 5+.” Greener Choices | Consumer Reports, May 23, 2017. http://greenerchoices.org/2017/05/23/global-animal-partnership-step-5/</ref>
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Prior to slaughter, many pigs become nonambulatory. This is thought to be due to the stress of transport and handling combined with the change of environment.<ref>Ritter, M.J., M. Ellis, N.L. Berry, S.E. Curtis, L. Anil, E. Berg, M. Benjamin, et al. “Review:Transport Losses in Market Weight Pigs: I. A Review of Definitions, Incidence, and Economic Impact.” The Professional Animal Scientist 25, no. 4 (August 2009): 404–14. https://doi.org/10.15232/S1080-7446(15)30735-X.</ref> Pigs who are unable to move may be {{jfa-highlight | beaten, dragged, or shocked with electric prods to move them through the killing line.}}<ref name="hormel">Compassion Over Killing. “Hormel.” Accessed November 2, 2019. https://cok.net/investigations/hormel/.</ref>
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===Organic ===
 
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Some have the perception that chickens with the ''organic'' label mean they are humanely raised, but that is not the case. Organic farmers are free to treat their animals no better than non-organic farmers. This is because the USDA, which controls the ''organic'' label in the United States, ruled that the label does not allow "broadly prescriptive, stand-alone animal welfare regulations."<ref>Whoriskey, Peter. “Should ‘USDA Organic’ Animals Be Treated More Humanely? The Trump Administration Just Said No.” Washington Post, December 15, 2017. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/12/15/should-usda-organic-animals-be-treated-more-humanely-the-trump-administration-just-said-no/</ref>
 
  
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Consumer Reports informs us that while there are organic standards relating to animals, they lack clarity and precision, letting producers with poor standards sell poultry and eggs.<ref>“Do You Care about Animal Welfare on Organic Farms?” Greener Choices | Consumer Reports, February 6, 2018. http://greenerchoices.org/2018/02/06/care-animal-welfare-organic-farms/</ref>
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It's not just in the slaughterhouse that such abuses occur. Undercover investigations have shown that pigs on factory farms endure cruel, rough handling. Multiple investigations conducted by Mercy for Animals and others have recorded pigs being:<ref name="Walmart" />
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===United Egg Producers Certified===
 
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Consumer Reports says that while the label is verified, "it is not meaningful as an animal welfare label because certain basic conditions, such as the freedom to move, are not required."<ref>“United Egg Producers Certified.” Greener Choices | Consumer Reports, March 23, 2017. http://greenerchoices.org/2017/03/23/united-egg-producers-certified/</ref>{{jfa-expand | Details: Freedom to Move }}
 
  
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According to Consumer Reports, "the UEP Certified guidelines allow continuous confinement in crowded cages in dimly lit buildings without natural light and fresh air. Hens only have to be given enough space to stand upright, with a minimum space requirement of 8 by 8 inches for white laying hens kept in a cage. Producers keeping their hens in cages do not have to allow the hens to move freely, perch, dust bathe, or forage, and nest boxes are not required. While the label is verified, it is not meaningful as an animal welfare label because certain basic conditions, such as the freedom to move, are not required."<ref>“United Egg Producers Certified.” Greener Choices | Consumer Reports, March 23, 2017. http://greenerchoices.org/2017/03/23/united-egg-producers-certified/ </ref>
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* punched
 +
* kicked
 +
* beaten
 +
* shouted at
 +
* having their hair pulled out
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* violently shaken
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* poked in the eyes
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* hit with wooden boards.
  
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{{jfa-expand-end}}
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Sick piglets were {{jfa-highlight | denied veterinary care}} and thrown into piles and {{jfa-highlight | left to die slowly}}.<ref name="Walmart">WalmartTorturesAnimals.com. “VIDEO: Pigs Punched and Beaten for Walmart.” Accessed November 4, 2019. http://www.walmarttorturesanimals.com/.</ref>
−
===American Humane Certified ===
 
−
According to Consumer Reports, "the requirements fall short in meeting consumer expectations for a 'humane' label in many ways."<ref>“American Humane Certified.” Consumer Reports—Greener Choices | Consumer Reports, January 11, 2017. http://greenerchoices.org/2017/01/11/american-humane-certified/</ref>
 
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===Animal Welfare Approved ===
 
−
This is the only certification that Consumer Reports says has strong standards, yet the standards still allow for mutilations<ref>“Animal Welfare Approved.” Greener Choices |Consumer Reports, November 16, 2016. http://greenerchoices.org/2016/11/16/awa-label-review/</ref> and other injustices. Also, products with this label are challenging to find. A search using their own product finder reveals that it's unlikely you will find any products with this label at a grocery store near you.<ref>“Find Products.” A Greener World. Accessed October 4, 2018. https://agreenerworld.org/shop-agw/product-search/</ref>
 
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===Certified Humane Raised and Handled===
 
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Consumer Reports says that "we do not rate Certified Humane as a highly meaningful label for animal welfare, because the standards do not have certain requirements that a majority of consumers expect from a 'humanely raised' label, such as access to the outdoors."<ref>“Certified Humane Raised and Handled.” Consumer Reports—Greener Choices | Consumer Reports, January 30, 2017. http://greenerchoices.org/2017/01/30/certified-humane/</ref>
 
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===Backyard Chickens ===
 
−
Although backyard chickens are not associated with a certification or label like the others that we are covering here, they deserve a closer look. A considerable number of people regard the practice of keeping chickens in the backyard for food as innocuous.
 
  
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Baby chicks often die in transport. A quick search will find numerous reports of chicks being shipped alive to backyard hobbyists and dying in transport—and reports of those that make it being greatly stressed.
+
=== Transportation ===
  
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Backyard chickens are the same or similar varieties as commercial chickens and are subject to all of the abuses that result from culling and selective breeding, as discussed above.
+
Pigs are often transported hundreds of miles in extreme temperatures to be slaughtered. This can lead to deaths due to frostbite or heat stress.<ref>Grandin, T. “The Welfare of Pigs during Transport and Slaughter.” Pig News and Information 24, no. 3 (2003): 83–90.</ref> Legally, pigs can be transported for up to 28 hours at a time with no rest, food, or water. This has been shown to be very stressful.<ref>Garcia, Arlene, Glenna Pirner, Guilherme Picinin, Matthew May, Kimberly Guay, Brittany Backus, Mhairi Sutherland, and John McGlone. “Effect of Provision of Feed and Water during Transport on the Welfare of Weaned Pigs.” Animals 5, no. 2 (June 4, 2015): 407–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani5020363.</ref>
  
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Backyard hens are likely to be slaughtered when egg production wanes, preventing them from living out their natural lives. As one hobbyist euphemistically put it, "when the expenses outweigh the value, then changes have to be made."<ref>“At What Age Do You Kill a Laying Hen?” BackYard Chickens. Accessed November 2, 2018. https://www.backyardchickens.com/threads/at-what-age-do-you-kill-a-laying-hen.837302/</ref>
+
Being transported is also stressful for pigs. In particular, they find vibration very uncomfortable and often suffer from travel sickness.<ref>Bradshaw, R. H., R. F. Parrott, M. L. Forsling, J. A. Goode, D. M. Lloyd, R. G. Rodway, and D. M. Broom. “Stress and Travel Sickness in Pigs: Effects of Road Transport on Plasma Concentrations of Cortisol, Beta-Endorphin and Lysine Vasopressin.” Animal Science 63, no. 3 (December 1996): 507–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135772980001540X.</ref>
  
−
The slaughter of backyard chickens, whether laying hens or broiler chickens, is usually done by slitting the throat and waiting for the convulsing chicken to die its slow death. The slaughter is violent, cruel, and painful, just as with commercial operations.
+
=== Pigs Left to Die after Natural Disasters ===
 +
In the USA, factory-farmed pigs have been left to die in the floods following major hurricanes. For example, an estimated 5500 pigs drowned following Hurricane Florence,<ref>[http://www.ncagr.gov/paffairs/release/2018/NCDACSmovingintocommunitiestoassessdamageassistinrecovery.htm “NCDA&CS Moving into Communities to Assess Damage & Assist in Recovery.” Accessed October 25, 2019. http://www.ncagr.gov/paffairs/release/2018/NCDACSmovingintocommunitiestoassessdamageassistinrecovery.htm.]</ref> and thousands more were killed by Hurricane Floyd.<ref>“Pork’s Dirty Secret: The Nation’s Top Hog Producer Is Also One of America’s Worst Polluters - Global ResearchGlobal Research.” Accessed November 2, 2019. https://www.globalresearch.ca/pork-s-dirty-secret-the-nation-s-top-hog-producer-is-also-one-of-america-s-worst-polluters/13479?print=1.</ref>
  
−
== Sentience and Cognition ==
+
== Humane Labels and Certifications ==
−
While we are not suggesting that the degree of moral consideration given to an animal be based on their cognitive capacity, it seems that most people are unaware of the rich cognitive, emotional, and psychological lives that chickens experience, including their ability to experience happiness, boredom, and frustration.<ref>Marino, Lori. “Thinking Chickens: A Review of Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in the Domestic Chicken.” ''Animal Cognition''20, no. 2 (2017): 127–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-016-1064-4</ref>
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{{Embed:Humane labels and certifications meaningless}}
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{{Embed:Collapse extra - suggested script for discussing humane labels and certifications}}
 +
 
 +
=== North American Meat Guidelines ===
 +
{{Embed:Humane label North American Meat Guidelines}}
  
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In her book on chicken behavior and intelligence, prominent animal neurobiologist Leslie J. Rogers says that "the cognitive abilities of some avian species may actually rival those of primates," and that "recent findings challenge assumptions that have been made about brain size and the superiority of the mammalian line of evolution."<ref>Rogers, Lesley J. ''The Development of Brain and Behaviour in the Chicken''. CAB International, 1995. 214.</ref> This is not as far-fetched as it might seem—the chicken's forebrain is similar to the forebrain of mammals.<ref>Jarvis, Erich D., Onur Güntürkün, Laura Bruce, András Csillag, Harvey Karten, Wayne Kuenzel, Loreta Medina, et al. “Avian Brains and a New Understanding of Vertebrate Brain Evolution.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6, no. 2 (February 2005): 151. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1606.</ref>
+
=== Global Animal Partnership 5-Step Certification ===
 +
{{Embed:Humane label GAP}}
  
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Experiments show that chickens have a sense of the future and thus have an interest in continuing to live.<ref>Friday, 15 July 2005 Jennifer ViegasDiscovery News. “Chickens Worry about the Future.” Item, July 15, 2005. https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2005/07/15/1415178.htm.
+
=== Certified Humane Raised and Handled ===
−
</ref><ref>Marino, Lori. “Thinking Chickens: A Review of Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in the Domestic Chicken.” Animal Cognition 20, no. 2 (2017): 127–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-016-1064-4.
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{{Embed:Humane label certified humane}}
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</ref> It is clear they can anticipate future events, exhibit self-control, and delay gratification.<ref>Abeyesinghe, S. M., C. J. Nicol, S. J. Hartnell, and C. M. Wathes. “Can Domestic Fowl, Gallus Gallus Domesticus, Show Self-Control?” Animal Behaviour 70, no. 1 (July 1, 2005): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.10.011.
 
−
</ref>
 
  
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In the paper "Thinking chickens: a review of cognition, emotion, and behavior in the domestic chicken," Lori Marino examined 266 research articles in 16 peer-reviewed journals and found that chickens, among other capabilities…<ref>Marino, Lori. “Thinking Chickens: A Review of Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in the Domestic Chicken.” ''Animal Cognition''20, no. 2 (2017): 127–47. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-016-1064-4</nowiki>.</ref>
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=== Animal Welfare Approved Standard ===
 +
{{Embed:Humane label Animal Welfare Approved}}
  
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* possess the capacity for episodic memory, which provides "evidence for an autobiographical sense of self in the past, present, and future"
+
=== American Humane Certified ===
 +
{{Embed:Humane label American Humane Certified}}
  
−
* exhibit self-control, a capacity not found in humans until age four and is associated with self-awareness and autonomy—the ability to think about and choose future outcomes
+
== Sentience and Cognition ==
  
−
* are capable of reasoning and logical inference
+
While we are not suggesting that the degree of moral consideration given to an animal be based on their cognitive capacity, it seems that most people are not fully aware of the rich cognitive, emotional, and psychological lives that pigs experience.
  
−
* are as "emotionally and socially complex as most other birds and mammals in many areas"
+
=== Object Recognition and Long-Term Memory ===
 +
Studies have shown that pigs can distinguish between objects and remember objects for at least five days. This shows that they have long-term memory. They are also able to think abstractly, learning the meaning of symbols representing actions and objects. In one experiment, pigs were able to understand and respond to combinations of symbols that represented phrases such as “fetch the ball.”<ref name="review">Marino, Lori, and Christina M. Colvin. “Thinking Pigs: A Comparative Review of Cognition, Emotion, and Personality in Sus Domesticus.” International Journal of Comparative Psychology, no. 28 (2015). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8sx4s79c.</ref> They have also been recorded using tools.<ref>Root-Bernstein, Meredith, Trupthi Narayan, Lucile Cornier, and Aude Bourgeois. “Context-Specific Tool Use by Sus Cebifrons.” Mammalian Biology 98 (September 2019): 102–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2019.08.003.</ref>
  
−
* can perform simple math and understand the ordinality of numbers
+
=== Anticipation of the Future ===
 +
Few studies have been done on time perception in pigs, but there is evidence that they can anticipate the future. For example, one study found that pigs reacted negatively with high-pitched vocalizations when they knew a negative event was coming.<ref name="review" />
  
−
* have self-awareness—"a subjective awareness of one’s identity, one’s body, and one’s thoughts through time, distinguished from others"
+
=== Cognitive Complexity ===
 +
Dr. Donald Broom of the University of Cambridge has been quoted as saying that pigs are cognitively capable of being more sophisticated than three-year-olds.<ref>Cambridge Daily News, “New Slant on Chump Chops,” Cambridge Daily News, 29 Mar. 2002. Quoted in Curado, Manuel, and Steven S Gouveia. ''Automata’s Inner Movie: Science and Philosophy of Mind'', 2019, 301.</ref>
  
−
* are capable of a wide range of emotions, including happiness, fear, anxiety, boredom, and frustration
+
Pigs also engage in play, considered to be an indication of cognitive complexity. When raised without enough stimulation, they can develop behavioral abnormalities. They have been shown to make more positive decisions when given more stimulation, which is evidence that environmental enrichment can make them more optimistic.<ref name="review" /> They are also skilled at using spatial information — navigating mazes, for example.<ref name="review" />
  
−
* "are behaviorally sophisticated, discriminating among individuals, exhibiting Machiavellian-like social interactions, and learning socially in complex ways that are similar to humans."
+
=== Awareness of Self and Others ===
 +
Studies show that pigs can discriminate between individuals, whether human or other pigs. Pigs in some studies have been able to find food that was only visible in a mirror. They have also been taught to play video games, controlling the joysticks with their mouths or snouts. This provides some evidence of self-awareness, as the pigs understood that their actions were causing the cursor to move. Many animals, such as dogs, do not show these capabilities.<ref name="review" />
  
−
* "have distinct personalities, just like all animals who are cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally complex individuals"
+
=== Emotional Lives and Personality Traits ===
 +
In one study, some pigs were trained to anticipate negative events when a certain piece of music was played. Others were not trained but exhibited similar stress responses to the nearby trained pigs when the music was played. This provides evidence that pigs can recognize and pick up on each other's emotions, which may mean they experience empathy. It also shows that they have a sense of the future. Additionally, pigs show a range of personality traits such as sociability, exploration, and aggression.<ref name="review" />
  
 
== Environmental Consequences ==
 
== Environmental Consequences ==
 +
The breeding, confinement, and slaughter of pigs have a profoundly negative impact on the environment.
  
−
Chicken production, like other areas of animal agriculture, has a profoundly negative impact on the environment.  
+
=== Waste ===
 +
Factory farms raise thousands of pigs at a time, and each one produces 2-4 times as much waste as a human. The production of such huge quantities of waste in a relatively small area makes it difficult to manage effectively. Usually, waste from industrial pig farms is dumped untreated into vast lagoons that may leak or overflow.<ref name=":2" />
  
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A 2008 report from the United Nations concludes that "the environmental impacts of the [poultry production] sector are substantial. Poultry production is associated with a variety of pollutants, including oxygen-demanding substances, ammonia, solids, nutrients (specifically nitrogen and phosphorus), pathogens, trace elements, antibiotics, pesticides, hormones, and odor and other airborne emissions." This substantial impact is on surface water, groundwater, air, and soil.<ref>Gerber, Paul R., Carolyn Opio, and Henning Steinfeld. “Poultry Production and the Environment – a Review.” Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2008.</ref>
+
Untreated pig waste is often spread over nearby fields in an attempt to dispose of it. These excessive amounts of manure can pollute the soil. When the soil becomes saturated, manure may run off the fields and into waterways. This, along with overflow from lagoons, can contaminate water and kill [[fish]]. Pollutants from pig slaughterhouses may also be released into waterways.<ref name=":2" />
  
−
The impact of chicken production on global greenhouse gas emissions is not as great as for cows, but at eight percent of the total for animal agriculture, it is still substantial.<ref>“FAO - News Article: Key Facts and Findings.” FAO News—GHG Emissions by Livestock. Accessed July 3, 2019. http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/197623/icode/ </ref>
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Waste lagoons and the spraying of manure pollute the air with toxins and greenhouse gases such as hydrogen sulfide, methane, and ammonia.<ref name=":2" /> Nitrogen in the waste may also contribute to acid rain.<ref>Steeves, Michael. “The EPA’s Proposed CAFO Regulations Fall Short of Ensuring the Integrity of Our Nation’s Waters.” JOURNAL OF LAND, RESOURCES, AND ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 22 (2002). https://nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/bibarticles/steeves_cafo.pdf.</ref>
  
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The poultry industry points to chicken production being less environmentally damaging than other species of farmed animal production because "chickens are the most efficient converters of feed into meat of all land-based livestock species."<ref>Kite, Vivien. “How Sustainable Is Chicken Farming?” ACMF (blog), June 2, 2014. https://www.chicken.org.au/how-sustainable-is-chicken-farming/</ref> But their calculations ignore the total impact on the environment that accrues because far more chickens are produced than any other animal.<ref name=":0" />  
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==== Eutrophication ====
 +
After flowing into rivers, nitrogen from manure can reach lakes and oceans, where it causes algae to bloom and use up much of the oxygen in the water. This process is known as eutrophication, and it makes it difficult or impossible for other aquatic species to survive.<ref name=":2" />
  
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It's ironic that chickens that actually are free-range to some extent (which are a small minority of the birds labeled free-range, as discussed above) place a greater environmental burden in the areas of energy use, land use, and the potential for global warming, eutrophication, and acidification.<ref>Rodic, Vesna, Lidija Peric, Mirjana Đukić Stojčić, and Natasa Vukelić. “The Environmental Impact of Poultry Production.” Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry 27 (January 1, 2011): 1673–79. https://doi.org/10.2298/BAH1104673R.
+
=== Feed Production ===
−
</ref>
+
Factory-farmed pigs are fed largely on grains, which also causes environmental problems. Huge areas of land are needed to grow this grain, leading to deforestation and habitat destruction. According to the FAO, 47 percent of emissions from pig-rearing are caused by feed production. Another 13 percent is related to land-use change due to the growing of crops.<ref>“Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Pig and Chicken Supply Chains: A Global Life Cycle Assessment.” FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, 2013. <nowiki>http://www.fao.org/3/i3460e/i3460e.pdf</nowiki>.</ref> Large quantities of water, fertilizers, and fossil fuels are also used in this process.<ref>Steinfeld, Henning, Pierre Gerber, T. D. Wassenaar, Vincent Castel, Mauricio Rosales M. , and Cees de Haan. Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2006.</ref> Farmed pigs are also sometimes fed on fishmeal,<ref>Dórea, José G. “Fish Meal in Animal Feed and Human Exposure to Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic Substances.” Journal of Food Protection 69, no. 11 (November 2006): 2777–85. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-69.11.2777.</ref> contributing to overfishing.
  
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== Human Health, Nutrition ==
+
== Human Health and Nutrition ==
  
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=== Eggs ===
+
=== Food Safety ===
  
−
Eggs contain no nutrients that cannot be easily obtained from plant-based sources. About 70 percent of egg calories are from fat (much of which is saturated), and eggs are loaded with cholesterol.<ref>“Egg Nutrition Facts Labels | Large Egg Calories and Protein.” Egg Nutrition Center (blog). Accessed July 6, 2019. https://www.eggnutritioncenter.org/egg-nutrition-facts-panels/.
+
Though USDA inspectors must legally be present at slaughterhouses, some inspectors complain that the design of plants makes it impossible for them to see the slaughter area. Because of the speed of the lines, it is also very difficult for inspectors to spot abnormalities or diseases in the carcasses.<ref>Foer, Jonathan Safran. Eating Animals. 1st Back Bay pbk. ed. New York: Back Bay Books/Little, Brown and Co, 2010, 151.</ref>
−
</ref> Also, eggs have zero fiber. So it would be disingenuous to say that eggs are healthy because they contain other nutrients when these other nutrients can easily be found in other foods.
+
=== Diseases ===
  
−
It's telling that even the USDA, arguably the best friend animal agriculture could ask for, has told the egg industry that it is not allowed to say eggs are healthy or nutritious.<ref>Transcript tab: "Flashback Friday: Who Says Eggs Aren’t Healthy or Safe? | NutritionFacts.Org.” Accessed July 5, 2019. https://nutritionfacts.org/video/flashback-friday-who-says-eggs-arent-healthy-or-safe/.</ref>
+
==== Cardiovascular Disease ====
 +
Pig meat contains saturated fat, cholesterol, and heme iron, which contribute to an increased risk of heart disease.<ref>Hu, Frank B., Meir J. Stampfer, JoAnn E. Manson, Eric Rimm, Graham A. Colditz, Bernard A. Rosner, Charles H. Hennekens, and Walter C. Willett. “Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women.” New England Journal of Medicine 337, no. 21 (November 20, 1997): 1491–99. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199711203372102.</ref><ref>Kannel, William B. “Serum Cholesterol, Lipoproteins, and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease: The Framingham Study.” Annals of Internal Medicine 74, no. 1 (January 1, 1971): 1. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-74-1-1.</ref><ref>A, Daphne L. van der, Petra H. M. Peeters, Diederick E. Grobbee, Joannes J. M. Marx, and Yvonne T. van der Schouw. “Dietary Haem Iron and Coronary Heart Disease in Women.” European Heart Journal 26, no. 3 (February 2005): 257–62. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehi027.</ref><ref>Tzonou, A., P. Lagiou, A. Trichopoulou, V. Tsoutsos, and D. Trichopoulos. “Dietary Iron and Coronary Heart Disease Risk: A Study from Greece.” American Journal of Epidemiology 147, no. 2 (January 15, 1998): 161–66. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009429.</ref> In 2012, a meta-analysis concluded that both red and processed meat are linked to an increased risk of stroke.<ref>Kaluza, Joanna, Alicja Wolk, and Susanna C. Larsson. “Red Meat Consumption and Risk of Stroke: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies.” Stroke 43, no. 10 (October 2012): 2556–60. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.663286.</ref> A Finnish study carried out between 1972 and 1992 found that heart disease rates in the country dropped dramatically when the intake of saturated fat and cholesterol decreased.<ref>Pietinen, Pirjo, Erkki Vartiainen, Ritva Seppänen, Antti Aro, and Pekka Puska. “Changes in Diet in Finland from 1972 to 1992: Impact on Coronary Heart Disease Risk.” Preventive Medicine 25, no. 3 (May 1996): 243–50. https://doi.org/10.1006/pmed.1996.0053.</ref>
  
−
The links between eggs and heart disease, cancer, and diabetes have been known for years.<ref>“What’s Wrong with Eggs?” Forks Over Knives, September 3, 2013. https://www.forksoverknives.com/whats-wrong-with-eggs/ </ref> But this has become controversial because most of the more recent egg studies have been funded by the egg industry,<ref>“Egg Industry Continues to Influence Dietary Guidelines, FOIA Document Reveals.” Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Accessed July 6, 2019. https://www.pcrm.org/news/news-releases/egg-industry-continues-influence-dietary-guidelines-foia-document-reveals.
+
==== Cancer ====
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</ref> resulting in misleading conclusions and sowing confusion about the topic.<ref>Nestle, Marion. “Food Industry Funding of Nutrition Research: The Relevance of History for Current Debates.” JAMA Internal Medicine 176, no. 11 (November 1, 2016): 1685–86. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5400.</ref><ref>“Egg Industry Funded Studies - Google Search.” Google Search. Accessed July 5, 2019. https://www.google.com/search?q=egg+industry+funded+studies.</ref> If you are interested in exactly how the egg industry has rigged the results, see [https://nutritionfacts.org/video/how-the-egg-board-designs-misleading-studies/ this] explanation.<ref>Transcript Tab: How the Egg Board Designs Misleading Studies | NutritionFacts.Org. Accessed July 6, 2019. https://nutritionfacts.org/video/how-the-egg-board-designs-misleading-studies/.
+
In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) evaluated 800 studies and concluded that processed meat (such as sausages, bacon, and ham) is a Group 1 carcinogen, meaning it definitely causes cancer. The processing and cooking of meat was found to form various carcinogenic chemicals.<ref name="who">Bouvard, Véronique, Dana Loomis, Kathryn Z. Guyton, Yann Grosse, Fatiha El Ghissassi, Lamia Benbrahim-Tallaa, Neela Guha, Heidi Mattock, and Kurt Straif. “Carcinogenicity of Consumption of Red and Processed Meat.” The Lancet Oncology 16, no. 16 (December 1, 2015): 1599–1600. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(15)00444-1.</ref> Other Group 1 carcinogens include tobacco and asbestos.<ref>“Known and Probable Human Carcinogens.” Accessed November 1, 2019. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/general-info/known-and-probable-human-carcinogens.html.</ref>
−
</ref>
 
  
−
Hopefully, a 2019 study that was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association will correct the public's perception of the issue. It finds that eating even small amounts of eggs daily significantly raises the risk for both cardiovascular disease and premature death. And the more eggs consumed, the higher the risk for stroke, coronary heart disease, and heart failure.<ref>Zhong, Victor W., Linda Van Horn, Marilyn C. Cornelis, John T. Wilkins, Hongyan Ning, Mercedes R. Carnethon, Philip Greenland, et al. “Associations of Dietary Cholesterol or Egg Consumption With Incident Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality.” JAMA 321, no. 11 (March 19, 2019): 1081–95. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.1572.</ref>
+
The report also concluded that unprocessed red meat (including pig meat) is Group 2A carcinogen, meaning it is a probable cause of cancer. It has been linked to colorectal, prostate, and pancreatic cancer.<ref name="who" />
  
−
=== Chicken Meat ===
+
==== Type 2 Diabetes ====
  
−
It is commonly believed that white meat is healthier than red meat, and this belief is at least partially responsible for the 1,400 percent increase in the number of chickens bred and slaughtered for meat over the last 50 years.<ref>“Big Chicken: Pollution and Industrial Poultry Production in America.” Accessed July 6, 2019. http://pew.org/2yIxE4p</ref>
+
Red meat is associated with an increased risk of Type 2 diabetes, especially if it is processed. This is thought to be because it contains high levels of fat, heme iron, nitrites, and other harmful substances.<ref>Pan, An, Qi Sun, Adam M Bernstein, Matthias B Schulze, JoAnn E Manson, Walter C Willett, and Frank B Hu. “Red Meat Consumption and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: 3 Cohorts of US Adults and an Updated Meta-Analysis.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 94, no. 4 (October 1, 2011): 1088–96. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.018978.</ref>
  
−
But a 2019 study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition says that there is no reason to choose white meat over red meat for the reduction of cardiovascular disease, and it recommends plant-based food for lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease.<ref>Bergeron, Nathalie, Sally Chiu, Paul T. Williams, Sarah M King, and Ronald M. Krauss. “Effects of Red Meat, White Meat, and Nonmeat Protein Sources on Atherogenic Lipoprotein Measures in the Context of Low Compared with High Saturated Fat Intake: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 110, no. 1 (July 1, 2019): 24–33. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz035.</ref>
+
=== Animal Protein Risks ===
  
−
All animal protein, chicken or otherwise, carries risks that are not associated with plant protein. A review by Dr. Sofia Ochoa cites 42 studies showing that animal protein…
+
All animal protein, pig meat or otherwise, carries risks that are not associated with plant protein. {{Embed:Animal protein risks}}
  
−
* elevates hormone insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which stimulates cell division and growth in both healthy and cancer cells and "has been consistently associated with increased cancer risk, proliferation, and malignancy"
+
== Social Consequences of Pig Production ==
 +
The vast majority of pigs in industrialized nations are raised on factory farms. This has profound consequences for those who live nearby. The farms are disproportionately located in low-income communities inhabited largely by ethnic minorities.<ref>Edwards, Bob, and Anthony Ladd. “Race, Poverty, Political Capacity and the Spatial Distribution of Swine Waste in North Carolina, 1982-1997.” ''The North Carolina Geographer'' 9 (2001): 51–70.</ref><ref name="gbiz"> Sacoby Wilson, “Rural Americans’ Struggles against Factory Farm Pollution Find Traction in Court,” Text, GreenBiz, August 6, 2018. Accessed January 2, 2020. https://www.greenbiz.com/article/rural-americans-struggles-against-factory-farm-pollution-find-traction-court.</ref>
  
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* "results in us having higher circulating levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO)," which "injures the lining of our vessels, creates inflammation, and facilitates the formation of cholesterol plaques in our blood vessels"
+
=== Foul Odors ===
 +
One of the most studied cases is in North Carolina, the second-largest hog-producing state. Those who live near factory farms complain of foul odors that invade their homes and force them to cover their mouths and noses when they step outside. Some even spend nights in motels to escape it if they can afford to do so. The smell can permeate clothes and upholstery, making it difficult to remove.<ref name=":0" />
  
−
* causes the overproduction of the hormone fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), which damages our blood vessels, can "lead to enlargement of the cardiac ventricle, and is associated with heart attacks, sudden death, and heart failure"
+
=== Land and Water Contamination ===
 +
'''Contamination from airborne manure:''' Excess manure from factory farms is spread over nearby fields. In some areas, manure is spread so close to communities that a mist of it covers houses, cars, and laundry left out to dry.<ref name=":0">Wing Steve. “Social Responsibility and Research Ethics in Community-Driven Studies of Industrialized Hog Production.” Environmental Health Perspectives 110, no. 5 (May 1, 2002): 437–44. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.02110437.</ref>
  
−
* can result in the overabsorption of heme iron, causing the conversion of other oxidants into highly reactive free radicals that "can damage different cell structures like proteins, membranes, and DNA" (heme iron "has also been associated with many kinds of gastrointestinal cancers")
+
'''Contimination of water supply:''' Other waste is stored in lagoons, which can leak or overflow and contaminate the local water supply.<ref name=":2" />
  
−
* can result in a higher incidence of bone fractures because of animal protein's high concentrations of sulfur
+
'''Health problems from manure:''' Factory-farmed pig manure often contains pathogens, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, toxic chemicals, and heavy metals, which can cause illness if inhaled or ingested.<ref name=":2">Marks, Robbin. “CESSPOOLS OF SHAME: How Factory Farm Lagoons and Sprayfields Threaten Environmental and Public Health.” Natural Resources Defense Council and the Clean Water Network, July 2001. <nowiki>https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/cesspools.pdf</nowiki>.</ref><ref name="gbiz"/> Studies show that these substances can contribute to decreased quality of life, higher blood pressure,<ref>Wing, Steve, Rachel Avery Horton, and Kathryn M. Rose. “Air Pollution from Industrial Swine Operations and Blood Pressure of Neighboring Residents.” ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' 121, no. 1 (January 2013): 92–96. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205109</nowiki>.</ref> respiratory problems, and mental stress. The odors can also lead to headaches, nausea, and vomiting, among other symptoms.<ref>Wing, Steve, Rachel Avery Horton, Stephen W. Marshall, Kendall Thu, Mansoureh Tajik, Leah Schinasi, and Susan S. Schiffman. “Air Pollution and Odor in Communities Near Industrial Swine Operations.” ''Environmental Health Perspectives'' 116, no. 10 (October 2008): 1362–68. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11250</nowiki>.</ref> Factory farm workers may also have an increased risk of health problems, such as asthma.<ref>Dosman, J. A., J. A. Lawson, S. P. Kirychuk, Y. Cormier, J. Biem, and N. Koehncke. “Occupational Asthma in Newly Employed Workers in Intensive Swine Confinement Facilities.” ''The European Respiratory Journal'' 24, no. 4 (October 2004): 698–702. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.04.00112102</nowiki>.</ref>
  
−
* contributes to atherosclerosis—plaques of cholesterol that accumulate in the lining of our vessels; this condition is far less common on a vegan diet because absorbable cholesterol is not found in plants
+
=== Exploitation of Slaughterhouse Workers ===
 +
Slaughterhouse workers have some of the highest injury rates of any industry, as lines move at unsafe speeds and workers handle very sharp knives. Several workers have even been killed in US slaughterhouses. Workers are also prone to repetitive strain injuries from repeating the same movements for hours on end. They are often dismissed when they become injured, leading many to hide their injuries and continue working.<ref name=":1">“Blood, Sweat, and Fear | Workers’ Rights in U.S. Meat and Poultry Plants.” Human Rights Watch, January 24, 2005. https://www.hrw.org/report/2005/01/24/blood-sweat-and-fear/workers-rights-us-meat-and-poultry-plants.</ref>
  
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== Social Consequences of Chicken Production ==
+
Those who work in slaughterhouses are often undocumented immigrants who speak little English. They may not be aware of their rights and often fear deportation if they try to improve their conditions. Workers may be forced to work excessively long shifts and threatened with dismissal if they refuse. Some are expected to work as much as twelve hours a day, six days a week. This can lead to fatigue and depression.<ref name=":1" />
−
Poultry workers suffer serious injuries at twice the rate of other industries and are more than six times as likely to have sickness related to work, according to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).<ref>“OSHA Poultry Slaughtering and Poultry Processing | Occupational Safety and Health Administration.” Accessed June 12, 2019. <nowiki>https://www.osha.gov/dep/enforcement/poultry_processing_10282015.html</nowiki>.</ref>
 
  
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OSHA data from 2013 reveals poultry workers suffer carpal tunnel syndrome seven times more than the average worker and that they are 4.5 times more likely to identify repetitive motion for serious injury.<ref>Cartwright, Michael S., Francis O. Walker, Jill N. Blocker, Mark R. Schulz, Thomas A. Arcury, Joseph G. Grzywacz, Dana Mora, Haiying Chen, Antonio J. Marín, and Sara A. Quandt. “The Prevalence of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome in Latino Poultry-Processing Workers and Other Latino Manual Workers.” ''Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine''54, no. 2 (February 2012): 198–201. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e31823fdf53</nowiki>.</ref><ref>Cartwright, Michael S., Francis O. Walker, Jill C. Newman, Mark R. Schulz, Thomas A. Arcury, Joseph G. Grzywacz, Dana C. Mora, Haiying Chen, Bethany Eaton, and Sara A. Quandt. “One-Year Incidence of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome in Latino Poultry Processing Workers and Other Latino Manual Workers.” ''American Journal of Industrial Medicine''57, no. 3 (March 2014): 362–69. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.22250</nowiki>.</ref><ref>Musolin, Kristin, Jessica G. Ramsey, James T. Wassell, and David L. Hard. “Prevalence of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome among Employees at a Poultry Processing Plant.” ''Applied Ergonomics''45, no. 6 (November 2014): 1377–83. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2014.03.005</nowiki>.</ref>
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=== Violence in Slaughterhouse Communities ===
 +
Committing violent acts against animals leads many workers to develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).<ref>Dillard, Jennifer. “A Slaughterhouse Nightmare:  Psychological Harm Suffered by Slaughterhouse Employees  and the Possibility of Redress through Legal Reform .” ''Georgetown Journal on Poverty Law & Policy'' XV, no. 2 (Summer 2008).</ref> It may also lead them to commit violence against humans. Rates of violent crime, including domestic abuse and rape, are higher in communities located near a slaughterhouse.<ref>Fitzgerald, Amy J., Linda Kalof, and Thomas Dietz. “Slaughterhouses and Increased Crime Rates: An Empirical Analysis of the Spillover From ‘The Jungle’ Into the Surrounding Community.” ''Organization & Environment'' 22, no. 2 (June 2009): 158–84. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1086026609338164</nowiki>.</ref>
  
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The GAO also finds that workers are hesitant to speak up about the injuries for fear of retaliation, which suggests the problems may be underreported.<ref>Office, U. S. Government Accountability. “Workplace Safety and Health: Better Outreach, Collaboration, and Information Needed to Help Protect Workers at Meat and Poultry Plants,” no. GAO-18-12 (December 7, 2017). https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-18-12.</ref>
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== Meta ==
  
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The Union of Concerned Scientists concludes that with the increase in chicken-processing line speeds allowed by the USDA in late 2018, the situation will only get worse.<ref>“USDA Increases Line Speeds Endangering Poultry Processing Plant Workers.” Union of Concerned Scientists. Accessed June 12, 2019. <nowiki>https://www.ucsusa.org/center-science-and-democracy/attacks-on-science/usda-increases-line-speeds-endangering-poultry</nowiki>.</ref>
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This article was originally authored by [[User:Bethany.Chester | Bethany Chester]] with contributions by [[User:Greg.Fuller | Greg Fuller]] . The contents may have been edited since that time by others.
  
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== Footnotes ==
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== Meta ==
 
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| meta-description = This article covers various aspects of farmed chickens in the context of animal rights, including injustices and suffering, humane labels and certifications, chicken sentience and cognition, the environmental consequences of farming chickens, the health risks of chicken meat and eggs, and impacts to workers and neighborhoods.
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| meta-description = This article provides summarized information about farmed pigs in the context of animal rights, including injustices and suffering, humane labels and certifications, pig sentience and cognition, the environmental consequences of farming pigs, the health risks of pig meat, and impacts to workers and neighborhoods.
 
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Latest revision as of 10:11, 8 January 2020

This article provides summarized information about farmed pigs in the context of animal rights, including injustices and suffering, humane labels and certifications, pig sentience and cognition, the environmental consequences of farming pigs, the health risks of pig meat, and impacts to communities and workers.

General Information

Lineage

Pigs were domesticated approximately 9000 years ago from various subspecies of the Eurasian wild boar.[1] Domestication occurred separately in Europe and Asia, though there is evidence that interbreeding later took place.[2] Pigs were brought to North America by Spanish explorers in the 16th century.[3]

Numbers

Worldwide, over two billion pigs are slaughtered for meat each year. In the United States alone, over 121 million are killed annually.

Using data from the USDA Census of Agriculture and the EPA's definitions of Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations, the Sentience Institute estimates that 98.3 percent of pigs in the USA are factory-farmed.[4] The figures for other industrialized nations are likely to be similar.

Injustices and Suffering

The injustices inherent in exploiting pigs and other non-human animals stem from seeing them as commodities having only instrumental value, lacking any inherent worth apart from their usefulness to humans.

As Tom Regan put it, the animals we use "have a life of their own that is of importance to them, apart from their utility to us. They are not only in the world, they are aware of it and also of what happens to them. And what happens to them matters to them. Each has a life that fares experientially better or worse for the one whose life it is."

As shown in the section on sentience and cognition, pigs not only have a will to live and value their lives, just as humans do, but also have desires, preferences, emotions, families, social communities, natural behaviors, a sense of themselves, and a sense of the future.

The injustices discussed below—all arising from a failure to recognize the inherent worth of other sentient beings—are either standard practice or not unusual. And, as shown in the section below on humane labels and certifications, this is true even for products with a humane label or certification. To omit a significant number of these injustices would likely render the cost of such products unaffordable by all but the most affluent, and we would still have to slaughter them.

Loss of Life

We have no nutritional need for pork, so denying pigs their lives is unnecessary, as are the other forms of suffering enumerated here. Not only are we taking their lives—we are doing so after allowing them to live only about three percent of their natural life spans. Pigs are slaughtered after living only 5 to 6 weeks of a 10 to 12-year natural lifespan.

To take the life of any sentient being is to harm that being by depriving them of opportunities for fulfillment, even if it is done suddenly and painlessly (which it is not, as explained below).

Slaughter

Boiling Alive

Many slaughterhouses kill 1000 pigs or more per hour, and the USDA is attempting to remove limits on slaughter line speeds.[5] Legally, pigs are required to be rendered unconscious by stunning before slaughter. However, lines run so quickly that mistakes are inevitable. Many pigs are not properly stunned, and investigations show that as a consequence they are still conscious when they reach the scalding tanks which remove their hair.[6] This means they are effectively boiled alive.

Gas Chambers

Increasingly, pigs are slaughtered in carbon dioxide gas chambers rather than conventional slaughterhouses.[7] This is considered the most humane method of slaughter, but undercover footage shows pigs panicking, gasping for air, and trying to escape.[8] Studies show that this form of slaughter causes both anxiety and pain in pigs.[9]

Mutilations

Teeth Clipping

Piglets may also have their sharp “needle teeth” clipped to prevent them from injuring each other when fighting over teats, inducing severe pain in pigs as it would in humans.[10] Teeth clipping can also result in lasting damage. According to the American Veterinary Medical Association, "clipping has been shown to increase longer-term behaviors suggestive of discomfort such as chomping. Piglets whose teeth have been clipped may experience more gum and tongue injuries, and potentially painful inflammation or abscesses of the teeth."[11]

Castration

Male piglets are castrated, primarily because their flesh can otherwise develop an unpleasant taste and smell. This is generally done by making an incision in the scrotum and pulling out the testes, before cutting the spermatic cord. In most countries, it is legal to carry out this procedure without anesthetic in the piglet's first week of life, despite the fact that this is known to be painful. Carrying out castration at this age is also risky as the testes are very small, which can lead to incomplete castration and increase the risk of prolapse of the intestine.[12]

Tail Docking

Pigs sometimes bite each other's tails when stressed, so some farmers cut off pigs' tails to prevent this. However, studies suggest that this can cause acute and possibly chronic pain.[13] Though tail docking is thought to reduce the incidence of serious injuries, it does not eliminate them. In Ireland, where 99 percent of pigs have docked tails, 72.5 percent were still found to have tail lesions at slaughter.[14]

Ear Notching and Tattooing

Most piglets undergo painful routine procedures when they are less than a week old so they can be identified.

Ear notching is painful.[15] Tattooing involves some degree of pain, but perhaps, more importantly, it is stressful.[16] Unlike humans, when pigs are tattooed they are not consenting and don't understand what's happening to them.

Living Conditions

Gestation Crates

Pregnant sows are often kept in metal stalls called gestation crates. The crates typically measure just 6.5 ft x 2.0 ft, meaning sows are not able to turn around.[17] Some larger sows are not even able to lie on their sides (the way pigs normally sleep) in the crates. The stalls typically do not contain bedding material, instead having metal, plastic, or concrete floors. Sows often chew on the bars, a sign of boredom and frustration.[18] Pigs prefer to relieve themselves a long way from where they eat and sleep, which is impossible when they are confined to crates.[19]

Farrowing Crates

A few days before they are due to give birth, sows are moved to farrowing crates. These are slightly larger to allow the sow to lie on her side and nurse her piglets. They also have an additional enclosure attached to prevent piglets from being accidentally crushed by the sow. The crates are said to reduce piglet mortality compared to keeping sows loose, but there is no convincing evidence that this is the case.[20] Sows remain in farrowing crates for about a month, before being impregnated again and returned to the gestation crates. Gestation crates have been banned in nine US states, but farrowing crates remain legal across the country. Use of the crates has also been banned or restricted in many other regions, such as the EU and Canada.[21]

Crowded Pens

After being removed from their mothers, piglets are crowded into pens where they barely have room to move until they reach slaughter weight. Pigs may also develop arthritis from lack of exercise and be injured when their feet are caught in the floor slats. The stress of confinement can lead pigs to exhibit unnatural cannibalistic behavior.[22]

Disease and High Mortality

African Swine Fever

African swine fever is one example of pigs' susceptibility to disease because of crowded filthy conditions. It has an extremely high mortality rate of 95-100 percent in pigs. There is no known treatment for the disease.[23] An outbreak in China in mid-2019 resulted in the deaths of millions of pigs.[24]

Pneumonia and Mange

Pneumonia and mange are other examples.[25] Mortality rates are high, and investigations have found that their bodies are sometimes left in the pens for extended periods.[26]

Reproduction and Selective Breeding

Large Litters

Modern sows have been bred to produce significantly larger litters than their wild counterparts. A study done on wild boars in Portugal found that litter sizes ranged from 2 to 8 piglets.[27] Farmed sows produce far larger litters. Between 1986 and 2006, the average number of live piglets per litter increased from 10.5 to 12.7. The time between litters also decreased from 155.8 days to 148.7 days. Suckling so many piglets can put immense strain on the sow and cause her to lose body weight.[28]

Weight Gain

Like factory-farmed chickens, pigs have been bred to gain weight so rapidly that they sometimes struggle to support their own body weight. On average, pigs who are being fattened now gain 770g a day, compared to 670g two decades ago. This rapid weight gain can lead to joint and leg problems.[28] In 1997, a study showed that pigs more closely related to wild boar gained 47g less per day.[29]

Pigs' increased muscle mass means their hearts and lungs are proportionally smaller than those of their ancestors, which can cause strain. As a result, even young pigs sometimes die from heart attacks.[30] Selective breeding for lean muscle has led to the prevalence of a gene which makes pigs very sensitive to stress.[28]

Artificial Insemination

The use of artificial insemination rather than natural breeding is common,[31] as it gives farmers more control over the characteristics of the piglets. Artificial insemination is a stressful procedure[32] that sows cannot consent to, making it a violation of their rights.

Cruel Handling

Prior to slaughter, many pigs become nonambulatory. This is thought to be due to the stress of transport and handling combined with the change of environment.[33] Pigs who are unable to move may be beaten, dragged, or shocked with electric prods to move them through the killing line.[6]

It's not just in the slaughterhouse that such abuses occur. Undercover investigations have shown that pigs on factory farms endure cruel, rough handling. Multiple investigations conducted by Mercy for Animals and others have recorded pigs being:[34]

  • punched
  • kicked
  • beaten
  • shouted at
  • having their hair pulled out
  • violently shaken
  • poked in the eyes
  • hit with wooden boards.

Sick piglets were denied veterinary care and thrown into piles and left to die slowly.[34]

Transportation

Pigs are often transported hundreds of miles in extreme temperatures to be slaughtered. This can lead to deaths due to frostbite or heat stress.[35] Legally, pigs can be transported for up to 28 hours at a time with no rest, food, or water. This has been shown to be very stressful.[36]

Being transported is also stressful for pigs. In particular, they find vibration very uncomfortable and often suffer from travel sickness.[37]

Pigs Left to Die after Natural Disasters

In the USA, factory-farmed pigs have been left to die in the floods following major hurricanes. For example, an estimated 5500 pigs drowned following Hurricane Florence,[38] and thousands more were killed by Hurricane Floyd.[39]

Humane Labels and Certifications

Investigations by Consumer Reports and the Open Philanthropy Project (and others) reveal that humane-sounding labels and certifications are largely meaningless, as shown below. In general, these investigations reveal that the standards are weak and unenforced, audits and inspections are rarely done, and if they are done and violations are found, which is infrequent, no one gets fined.[40][41]

North American Meat Guidelines

Some certifications rely on the North American Meat Institute slaughter guidelines for standards relating to slaughter. These allow pigs to be slaughtered in carbon dioxide gas chambers or conventional slaughterhouses. When gas chambers are used, it is considered acceptable for pigs to gasp for breath or exhibit “strange vocalization and sudden, involuntary reflexes including muscle jerks or twitches.”[44] Evidence shows that in conventional slaughterhouses, pigs are often improperly stunned.[45]

Global Animal Partnership 5-Step Certification

The Open Philanthropy Project criticized Whole Foods' Global Animal Partnership (GAP) for having weak enforcement and for providing only slight improvements over standard factory farming conditions.[46]

Certified Humane Raised and Handled

Consumer Reports says that "we do not rate Certified Humane as a highly meaningful label for animal welfare, because the standards do not have certain requirements that a majority of consumers expect from a 'humanely raised' label, such as access to the outdoors."[47]

Animal Welfare Approved Standard

On their Greener Choices website, Animal Welfare Approved is the only certification that Consumer Reports says has strong standards, yet the standards still allow for mutilations[48] and other injustices.

Also, products with this label are challenging to find. A search using their own product finder reveals that it's unlikely you will find any products with this label at a grocery store near you.[49]

American Humane Certified

According to Consumer Reports, "the requirements fall short in meeting consumer expectations for a 'humane' label in many ways."[50]

Sentience and Cognition

While we are not suggesting that the degree of moral consideration given to an animal be based on their cognitive capacity, it seems that most people are not fully aware of the rich cognitive, emotional, and psychological lives that pigs experience.

Object Recognition and Long-Term Memory

Studies have shown that pigs can distinguish between objects and remember objects for at least five days. This shows that they have long-term memory. They are also able to think abstractly, learning the meaning of symbols representing actions and objects. In one experiment, pigs were able to understand and respond to combinations of symbols that represented phrases such as “fetch the ball.”[51] They have also been recorded using tools.[52]

Anticipation of the Future

Few studies have been done on time perception in pigs, but there is evidence that they can anticipate the future. For example, one study found that pigs reacted negatively with high-pitched vocalizations when they knew a negative event was coming.[51]

Cognitive Complexity

Dr. Donald Broom of the University of Cambridge has been quoted as saying that pigs are cognitively capable of being more sophisticated than three-year-olds.[53]

Pigs also engage in play, considered to be an indication of cognitive complexity. When raised without enough stimulation, they can develop behavioral abnormalities. They have been shown to make more positive decisions when given more stimulation, which is evidence that environmental enrichment can make them more optimistic.[51] They are also skilled at using spatial information — navigating mazes, for example.[51]

Awareness of Self and Others

Studies show that pigs can discriminate between individuals, whether human or other pigs. Pigs in some studies have been able to find food that was only visible in a mirror. They have also been taught to play video games, controlling the joysticks with their mouths or snouts. This provides some evidence of self-awareness, as the pigs understood that their actions were causing the cursor to move. Many animals, such as dogs, do not show these capabilities.[51]

Emotional Lives and Personality Traits

In one study, some pigs were trained to anticipate negative events when a certain piece of music was played. Others were not trained but exhibited similar stress responses to the nearby trained pigs when the music was played. This provides evidence that pigs can recognize and pick up on each other's emotions, which may mean they experience empathy. It also shows that they have a sense of the future. Additionally, pigs show a range of personality traits such as sociability, exploration, and aggression.[51]

Environmental Consequences

The breeding, confinement, and slaughter of pigs have a profoundly negative impact on the environment.

Waste

Factory farms raise thousands of pigs at a time, and each one produces 2-4 times as much waste as a human. The production of such huge quantities of waste in a relatively small area makes it difficult to manage effectively. Usually, waste from industrial pig farms is dumped untreated into vast lagoons that may leak or overflow.[54]

Untreated pig waste is often spread over nearby fields in an attempt to dispose of it. These excessive amounts of manure can pollute the soil. When the soil becomes saturated, manure may run off the fields and into waterways. This, along with overflow from lagoons, can contaminate water and kill fish. Pollutants from pig slaughterhouses may also be released into waterways.[54]

Waste lagoons and the spraying of manure pollute the air with toxins and greenhouse gases such as hydrogen sulfide, methane, and ammonia.[54] Nitrogen in the waste may also contribute to acid rain.[55]

Eutrophication

After flowing into rivers, nitrogen from manure can reach lakes and oceans, where it causes algae to bloom and use up much of the oxygen in the water. This process is known as eutrophication, and it makes it difficult or impossible for other aquatic species to survive.[54]

Feed Production

Factory-farmed pigs are fed largely on grains, which also causes environmental problems. Huge areas of land are needed to grow this grain, leading to deforestation and habitat destruction. According to the FAO, 47 percent of emissions from pig-rearing are caused by feed production. Another 13 percent is related to land-use change due to the growing of crops.[56] Large quantities of water, fertilizers, and fossil fuels are also used in this process.[57] Farmed pigs are also sometimes fed on fishmeal,[58] contributing to overfishing.

Human Health and Nutrition

Food Safety

Though USDA inspectors must legally be present at slaughterhouses, some inspectors complain that the design of plants makes it impossible for them to see the slaughter area. Because of the speed of the lines, it is also very difficult for inspectors to spot abnormalities or diseases in the carcasses.[59]

Diseases

Cardiovascular Disease

Pig meat contains saturated fat, cholesterol, and heme iron, which contribute to an increased risk of heart disease.[60][61][62][63] In 2012, a meta-analysis concluded that both red and processed meat are linked to an increased risk of stroke.[64] A Finnish study carried out between 1972 and 1992 found that heart disease rates in the country dropped dramatically when the intake of saturated fat and cholesterol decreased.[65]

Cancer

In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) evaluated 800 studies and concluded that processed meat (such as sausages, bacon, and ham) is a Group 1 carcinogen, meaning it definitely causes cancer. The processing and cooking of meat was found to form various carcinogenic chemicals.[66] Other Group 1 carcinogens include tobacco and asbestos.[67]

The report also concluded that unprocessed red meat (including pig meat) is Group 2A carcinogen, meaning it is a probable cause of cancer. It has been linked to colorectal, prostate, and pancreatic cancer.[66]

Type 2 Diabetes

Red meat is associated with an increased risk of Type 2 diabetes, especially if it is processed. This is thought to be because it contains high levels of fat, heme iron, nitrites, and other harmful substances.[68]

Animal Protein Risks

All animal protein, pig meat or otherwise, carries risks that are not associated with plant protein. A review by Dr. Sofia Ochoa cites 42 studies showing that animal protein:[69]

  • elevates hormone-insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which stimulates cell division and growth in both healthy and cancer cells and "has been consistently associated with increased cancer risk, proliferation, and malignancy"
  • "results in us having higher circulating levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO)," which "injures the lining of our vessels, creates inflammation, and facilitates the formation of cholesterol plaques in our blood vessels"
  • causes the overproduction of the hormone fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), which damages our blood vessels, can "lead to enlargement of the cardiac ventricle, and is associated with heart attacks, sudden death, and heart failure"
  • can result in the overabsorption of heme iron, causing the conversion of other oxidants into highly reactive free radicals that "can damage different cell structures like proteins, membranes, and DNA" (heme iron "has also been associated with many kinds of gastrointestinal cancers")
  • can result in a higher incidence of bone fractures because of animal protein's high concentrations of sulfur
  • contributes to atherosclerosis—plaques of cholesterol that accumulate in the lining of our vessels; this condition is far less common on a vegan diet because absorbable cholesterol is not found in plants

Social Consequences of Pig Production

The vast majority of pigs in industrialized nations are raised on factory farms. This has profound consequences for those who live nearby. The farms are disproportionately located in low-income communities inhabited largely by ethnic minorities.[70][71]

Foul Odors

One of the most studied cases is in North Carolina, the second-largest hog-producing state. Those who live near factory farms complain of foul odors that invade their homes and force them to cover their mouths and noses when they step outside. Some even spend nights in motels to escape it if they can afford to do so. The smell can permeate clothes and upholstery, making it difficult to remove.[72]

Land and Water Contamination

Contamination from airborne manure: Excess manure from factory farms is spread over nearby fields. In some areas, manure is spread so close to communities that a mist of it covers houses, cars, and laundry left out to dry.[72]

Contimination of water supply: Other waste is stored in lagoons, which can leak or overflow and contaminate the local water supply.[54]

Health problems from manure: Factory-farmed pig manure often contains pathogens, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, toxic chemicals, and heavy metals, which can cause illness if inhaled or ingested.[54][71] Studies show that these substances can contribute to decreased quality of life, higher blood pressure,[73] respiratory problems, and mental stress. The odors can also lead to headaches, nausea, and vomiting, among other symptoms.[74] Factory farm workers may also have an increased risk of health problems, such as asthma.[75]

Exploitation of Slaughterhouse Workers

Slaughterhouse workers have some of the highest injury rates of any industry, as lines move at unsafe speeds and workers handle very sharp knives. Several workers have even been killed in US slaughterhouses. Workers are also prone to repetitive strain injuries from repeating the same movements for hours on end. They are often dismissed when they become injured, leading many to hide their injuries and continue working.[76]

Those who work in slaughterhouses are often undocumented immigrants who speak little English. They may not be aware of their rights and often fear deportation if they try to improve their conditions. Workers may be forced to work excessively long shifts and threatened with dismissal if they refuse. Some are expected to work as much as twelve hours a day, six days a week. This can lead to fatigue and depression.[76]

Violence in Slaughterhouse Communities

Committing violent acts against animals leads many workers to develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[77] It may also lead them to commit violence against humans. Rates of violent crime, including domestic abuse and rape, are higher in communities located near a slaughterhouse.[78]

Meta

This article was originally authored by Bethany Chester with contributions by Greg Fuller . The contents may have been edited since that time by others.

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Giuffra, E., J. M. Kijas, V. Amarger, O. Carlborg, J. T. Jeon, and L. Andersson. “The Origin of the Domestic Pig: Independent Domestication and Subsequent Introgression.” Genetics 154, no. 4 (April 2000): 1785–91.
  2. ↑ Larson, G. “Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication.” Science 307, no. 5715 (March 11, 2005): 1618–21. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1106927.
  3. ↑ Singer, Francis J. “Wild Pig Populations in the National Parks.” Environmental Management 5, no. 3 (May 1981): 263–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01873285.
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